复旦大学：《电子治理》阅读材料（英文）：Smart IT决策分析方法 Making Smart IT Choices.pdf_P16-P20

First things first: Choose a"good"problem Each regional office is responsible for The research, testing and evaluation that go monitoring and advising local governments in into this analysis are labor intensive processes. its geographic area on their financial affairs They can be applied to any problem, but not Each region collects information and does every problem deserves this level of attention things in its own way. There is no statewide This is a process that is worthwhile for repository of information that can provide complex, mission-critical, information-intensive context, history, best practices, or overall problems. We call these"good"problems performance information about this important because their solution has high positive impact pect of municipal government For these problems, you need to pay close attention to the political, economic, legal, and The third example does not focus on organizational environments as well as the operational concerns, but on the availability has these characteristics or warrants the technologies involved. Not every IT decisi and usability of statistical information about children. In this case, the information comes investment of resources that this process from 13 state agencies, is compiled once entails. Here are some administrative problems a year into a printed book by a central and service delivery questions that have coordinating agency, and is used by hundred successfully used this process of municipalities, nonprofit service agencies, and research organizations. The data is a How effective are current service packages collected according to different time periods, in helping homeless families achieve independence? using different definitions, and covering different geographic distributions a How can the complete history of relation- ships between a state agency and local Despite their differences, these problems governments be captured for ongoing use in have some similarities. First, they are mission current and future technical assistance? critical to the agencies that sponsor them The homeless services project is deeply How can information about the health and embedded in the core services and values well being of children be made readily of all involved organizations. The financial available to professionals and individuals health of municipalities is one of a handful of concerned with the design of children s overriding mission goals for the administrative service programs? agency And a visible public focus on the needs of children is the entire reason for the The first question represents an information existence of the coordinating agency. sharing and program evaluation problem homeless services system involves not only Second these problems are information state agencies, but local governments, and intensive situations The solution to each scores of nonprofit shelter and service problem depends, in large part, on the quality, providers, all with different kinds of information timeliness, and accessibility of information maintained in different systems and formats In most cases, some information systems are These organizations also respond to different already in place and need to be taken into d to a variety of legal account in any new approach requirements Third, they all exist in an environment of high The second problem involves the central office complexity. Both the homelessness and of a major administrative agency and its childrens data projects involve many regional offices distributed around the state independent organizations, each with its own CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES

CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES 14 Each regional office is responsible for monitoring and advising local governments in its geographic area on their financial affairs. Each region collects information and does things in its own way. There is no statewide repository of information that can provide context, history, best practices, or overall performance information about this important aspect of municipal government. The third example does not focus on operational concerns, but on the availability and usability of statistical information about children. In this case, the information comes from 13 state agencies, is compiled once a year into a printed book by a central coordinating agency, and is used by hundreds of municipalities, nonprofit service agencies, and research organizations. The data is collected according to different time periods, using different definitions, and covering different geographic distributions. Despite their differences, these problems have some similarities. First, they are mission critical to the agencies that sponsor them. The homeless services project is deeply embedded in the core services and values of all involved organizations. The financial health of municipalities is one of a handful of overriding mission goals for the administrative agency. And a visible public focus on the needs of children is the entire reason for the existence of the coordinating agency. Second, these problems are informationintensive situations. The solution to each problem depends, in large part, on the quality, timeliness, and accessibility of information. In most cases, some information systems are already in place and need to be taken into account in any new approach. Third, they all exist in an environment of high complexity. Both the homelessness and children’s data projects involve many independent organizations, each with its own First things first: Choose a “good” problem The research, testing, and evaluation that go into this analysis are labor intensive processes. They can be applied to any problem, but not every problem deserves this level of attention. This is a process that is worthwhile for complex, mission-critical, information-intensive problems. We call these “good” problems because their solution has high positive impact. For these problems, you need to pay close attention to the political, economic, legal, and organizational environments as well as the technologies involved. Not every IT decision has these characteristics or warrants the investment of resources that this process entails. Here are some administrative problems and service delivery questions that have successfully used this process: ■ How effective are current service packages in helping homeless families achieve independence? ■ How can the complete history of relationships between a state agency and local governments be captured for ongoing use in current and future technical assistance? ■ How can information about the health and well being of children be made readily available to professionals and individuals concerned with the design of children’s service programs? The first question represents an information sharing and program evaluation problem. The homeless services system involves not only state agencies, but local governments, and scores of nonprofit shelter and service providers, all with different kinds of information maintained in different systems and formats. These organizations also respond to different funding streams and to a variety of legal requirements. The second problem involves the central office of a major administrative agency and its regional offices distributed around the state

practices, values, and rules. Similarly, the and implement a project. But their individual municipal affairs project covers the whole state differences, and group dynamics, can make and must deal with local diversity ranging from it difficult for the group to reach its goals huge sophisticated cities to tiny rural towns and Consensus-building tools and skilled group villages. All three projects must deal with public facilitation can be very helpful in guiding a opinion, public budgeting and legislative cycles, group through the steps necessary to make and legal requirements. Civil service rules effective decisions ircumscribe staffing assignments and compensation. Organizational rules, traditions Consensus finding and-building tools are often and structures set boundaries. Many different needed to help a group resolve different views business processes already in place will need and conflicting objectives or interests Groups to be understood, and may need to be also frequently need to be introduced to changed models for collaboration, especially if they've never worked together before. Effective In projects with these characteristics teamwork may also involve difficult trade-offs opportunities abound for wrong assumptions, and other choices, so some decision-making premature decisions, and dangerous tools and techniques can be useful. Group oversimplification. This kind of complexity processes take skill and time to work seems overwhelming, and a common reaction effectively, but they result in well-documented is to try to cut through to the part of the project and well-understood decisions that can then that is more concrete and manageable-the guide the work group to a successful outcome. technology. this is almost always a mistake Tools and techniques for all of these topics Projects like these demand a careful analysis are described in Part Two that works through and manages the complexity It every level, from the larger environment, to the organizational considerations, to the work Techniques for acquiring needed processes and data needs, to the technology information choices s will rely on many kinds of Analysis is a group process information that can be gathered in a variety of ways. While most of the tools and For projects like those described above, the techniques we identify later are associated analytical process is not a solitary process. with a particular phase of the analytical These projects involve many people in different process, data gathering techniques can be organizations or organizational units. One used whenever they fit the situation. You person may lead an effort, or might collect, can use survey research methods such as organize, and present information, but groups self-administered or telephone questionnaires of people will inevitably become involved and to capture data about some characteristic, group processes will be needed attitude, or opinions of users and stakeholders during the initial problem definition stage, Government information technology projects during evaluation, or at any point in between can involve dozens of people. Individuals with For example, interviews can be used to assess vastly different work styles, backgrounds, and stakeholders at the beginning of the process lents are often brought together, asked to gather information about best and current rm a cohesive group, and charged with practices in the middle, and to evaluate a solving a problem. Often people from different prototype near the end. Similarly, simulations organizations need to work together to plan and process mapping can be used to CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES

CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES 15 and implement a project. But their individual differences, and group dynamics, can make it difficult for the group to reach its goals. Consensus-building tools and skilled group facilitation can be very helpful in guiding a group through the steps necessary to make effective decisions. Consensus-finding and -building tools are often needed to help a group resolve different views and conflicting objectives or interests. Groups also frequently need to be introduced to models for collaboration, especially if they’ve never worked together before. Effective teamwork may also involve difficult trade-offs and other choices, so some decision-making tools and techniques can be useful. Group processes take skill and time to work effectively, but they result in well-documented and well-understood decisions that can then guide the work group to a successful outcome. Tools and techniques for all of these topics are described in Part Two. Techniques for acquiring needed information Your analysis will rely on many kinds of information that can be gathered in a variety of ways. While most of the tools and techniques we identify later are associated with a particular phase of the analytical process, data gathering techniques can be used whenever they fit the situation. You can use survey research methods such as self-administered or telephone questionnaires to capture data about some characteristic, attitude, or opinions of users and stakeholders during the initial problem definition stage, during evaluation, or at any point in between. For example, interviews can be used to assess stakeholders at the beginning of the process, to gather information about best and current practices in the middle, and to evaluate a prototype near the end. Similarly, simulations and process mapping can be used to practices, values, and rules. Similarly, the municipal affairs project covers the whole state and must deal with local diversity ranging from huge sophisticated cities to tiny rural towns and villages. All three projects must deal with public opinion, public budgeting and legislative cycles, and legal requirements. Civil service rules circumscribe staffing assignments and compensation. Organizational rules, traditions, and structures set boundaries. Many different business processes already in place will need to be understood, and may need to be changed. In projects with these characteristics, opportunities abound for wrong assumptions, premature decisions, and dangerous oversimplification. This kind of complexity seems overwhelming, and a common reaction is to try to cut through to the part of the project that is more concrete and manageable—the technology. This is almost always a mistake. Projects like these demand a careful analysis that works through and manages the complexity at every level, from the larger environment, to the organizational considerations, to the work processes and data needs, to the technology choices. Analysis is a group process For projects like those described above, the analytical process is not a solitary process. These projects involve many people in different organizations or organizational units. One person may lead an effort, or might collect, organize, and present information, but groups of people will inevitably become involved and group processes will be needed. Government information technology projects can involve dozens of people. Individuals with vastly different work styles, backgrounds, and talents are often brought together, asked to form a cohesive group, and charged with solving a problem. Often people from different organizations need to work together to plan

understand current processes, and to design I Experiments- Use an experiment to learn or evaluate new ones. All of the following hat influences the way some proces data-gathering techniques will be described or activity actually works. the data is more fully in the tools installment typically a result of direct observation of behavior in a controlled situation The Library and document research-The natural setting involves a combination of purpose of these systematic searches of many interacting influences that make it print and electronic sources is to identify, review, analyze, and evaluate the recorded ery difficult to sort out the independent effects of one factor or another. By contrast, experience and assessments of others who n experiment is designed to control some have dealt with a similar information problem, or who have used a technology factors so the impacts of specific ones can be assessed. Experimenting with new similar to the one you are considering process models or user interfaces, for a Internet research- Web searching is a example, might provide a team with insights specialized kind of litera into their proposed changes involves using Internet search engines to a Simulations- System simulations provide locate pertinent information about a given a structured approach to visualizing and topic. By entering various key words and understanding how complex social and phrases, you can search the Internet for Web sites, publications, listservs, and other managerial systems give rise to problem behaviors, as well as what types of resources about your topic. An important point to remember about the Web: contrary solutions might be applied to much popular opinion, the Web doesn't a Process Analysis -Business process maps provide you access to every worthwhile (sometimes referred to as process models) thing ever written-it only directs you to are a graphical representation of the steps those things people have made available ollowed to achieve specific purpose, like hiring a new staff member or approving a a Self-administered questionnaires-When permit application. Process models help you need information from a large number you understand and communicate about of people or organizations, self-adminis- a business process. They can be used tered questionnaires are the right method to improve a process by evaluating They allow you to collect structured data fairly quickly from many people in different reorganizing, changing, or eliminating steps They can also be used to track the flow of locations. They usually employ short, simple resources, such as information through a questions and follow a careful sampling plan a Interviews- When you want to gather Some of these data gathering techniques, like detailed information about peoples Web searching and basic interviewing, are impressions, experiences, ideas, and easily learned. Others, like experimental attitudes interviews are often the best design or simulation, require considerable method. Face-to-face or telephone inte expertise. For these, you may want to consult iews yield rich information, and are good with or hire an expert ay to understand complex topics CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES

CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES 16 ■ Experiments – Use an experiment to learn what influences the way some process or activity actually works. The data is typically a result of direct observation of behavior in a controlled situation. The natural setting involves a combination of many interacting influences that make it very difficult to sort out the independent effects of one factor or another. By contrast, an experiment is designed to control some factors so the impacts of specific ones can be assessed. Experimenting with new process models or user interfaces, for example, might provide a team with insights into their proposed changes. ■ Simulations – System simulations provide a structured approach to visualizing and understanding how complex social and managerial systems give rise to problem behaviors, as well as what types of solutions might be applied. ■ Process Analysis – Business process maps (sometimes referred to as process models) are a graphical representation of the steps followed to achieve specific purpose, like hiring a new staff member or approving a permit application. Process models help you understand and communicate about a business process. They can be used to improve a process by evaluating, reorganizing, changing, or eliminating steps. They can also be used to track the flow of resources, such as information, through a process. Some of these data gathering techniques, like Web searching and basic interviewing, are easily learned. Others, like experimental design or simulation, require considerable expertise. For these, you may want to consult with or hire an expert. understand current processes, and to design or evaluate new ones. All of the following data-gathering techniques will be described more fully in the tools installment. ■ Library and document research – The purpose of these systematic searches of print and electronic sources is to identify, review, analyze, and evaluate the recorded experience and assessments of others who have dealt with a similar information problem, or who have used a technology similar to the one you are considering. ■ Internet research – Web searching is a specialized kind of literature review that involves using Internet search engines to locate pertinent information about a given topic. By entering various key words and phrases, you can search the Internet for Web sites, publications, listservs, and other resources about your topic. An important point to remember about the Web: contrary to much popular opinion, the Web doesn’t provide you access to every worthwhile thing ever written—it only directs you to those things people have made available. ■ Self-administered questionnaires – When you need information from a large number of people or organizations, self-administered questionnaires are the right method. They allow you to collect structured data fairly quickly from many people in different locations. They usually employ short, simple questions and follow a careful sampling plan. ■ Interviews – When you want to gather detailed information about people’s impressions, experiences, ideas, and attitudes, interviews are often the best method. Face-to-face or telephone interviews yield rich information, and are good way to understand complex topics

CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY IN GOVERNMENT: MAKING SMART IT CHOICES Choose a "good" problem How to Make Smart IT Choices Phase 1 Understand the problem and its context Present results in a business case Specify your program or business objective Identify and assess stakeholders Analyze the problem or process to be tackled Compare risks Compare costs and expected performance Make and explain final choices Find relevant practices, tools & techniques Develop and test alternative solutions Phase 2 Identify and test solutions Phase 3 Evaluate alternatives and make smart choices 17 Tools for Phase 1 Specify objectives: ■ visioning ■ hopes and fears exercise ■ strategic framework Identify and assess stakeholders: ■ positioning charts ■ partisan analysis ■ stakeholder analysis Analyze problem or process: ■ self-assessment ■ models of problems ■ process analysis Phase 1. Understand the problem and its context objective you want to achieve. This sounds simple, but in practice is often very difficult. Many projects go wrong at this very first step because those responsible assume everyone sees the situation and its resolution in the same way. This is almost never the case. Even simple programs or processes can be approached from different points of view. One participant may see a service that could be more accessible to its customers, another can look at the same service and want to reduce the cost and effort to deliver it, and still another may take an evaluator’s perspective and ask what value it delivers to society. Having identified a significant need or problem, the first phase of the analysis is to understand it as fully as possible in the context in which it occurs. Three kinds of work help you reach this depth of understanding: specifying objectives, identifying and assessing the influence of all stakeholders, and then analyzing the need or problem in detail. A more detailed description of the tools that can help gain a greater understanding of the problem and its context can be found beginning in Part Two. The first kind of work leads you and the others involved to a clear, unambiguous, shared understanding of the business or program