The widespread use of advanced control and process automation for biochemical applications has been lagging as compared with industries such as refining and petrochemicals whose feedstocks are relatively easy to characterize and whose chemistry is well understood and whose measure￾ments are relatively

Environmental laws and regulations including permits are reviewed in this chapter. Included are the Federal Clean Air Act Amendment (CAAA), the Federal Clean Water Act (CWA) regulations, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) or, as it is also known, the Solid Waste Disposal

Historically, sterile bulk pharmaceutical manufacturing processes, prior to filling operations, have followed general bulk pharmaceutical guidelines. As technology and equipment have improved

Common, everyday water is a major consideration in a pharmaceu￾tical plant. The final product or any of its intermediate materials can only be as contaminant-free as the water available at that stage. Water may be an ingredient or used principally to wash and rinse product contact components and equipment. Water is also used to humidiethe air, to generate clean steam for sterilization, to cool or heat, as a solvent, for drinking and sanitary uses, etc. To better control this critical media

The solids-liquid separation process can be accomplished by filtration or centrifugation. Centrifuges magnify the force of gravity to separate phases, solids from liquids or one liquid from another. There are two general types of centrifuges: Sedimentation Centrifuges-where a heavy phase settles out from a lighter phase

Crystallization is one of the oldest methods known for recovering pure solids from a solution. The Chinese, for example, were using crystallization to recover common salt from water some 5000 years ago. The perfection and beauty of the crystal which fascinated the early tribes now leads to a product of high purity and attractive appearance

Often in multiple-effect evaporators the concentration of the liquid being evaporated changes drastically from effect to effect, especially in the latter effects. In such cases, this phenomenon can be used to advantage by staging one or more of the latter effects. Staging is the operation of an effect by maintaining

“Evaporation is the removal of solvent as a vapor from a solution or slurry. The vapor may or may not be recovered, depending on its value. The end product may be a solid, but the transfer of heat in the evaporator must be to a solution or a suspension of the solid in liquid if the apparatus is not to be classed as a dryer. Evaporators are similar to stills or re-boilers of distillation

The engineer designing an ion exchange column operation usually will prefer to work with the simplest kinetic model and linear driving force approximations. The weakness ofthis approach is that any driving force law only regards the momentary exchange rate as a hnction of the solute concentration in the bulk solution and the average concentration in the particle, neglecting the effect of concentration profiles in the particle

n 1850 Thompson['] reported the first ion exchange applications which used naturally occurring clays. However, ion exchange resins have only been used in biochemical and fermentation product recovery since the