Volumes previously published by the University of Cali- THE PRESIDENCY OF YUAN SHIH-K'AI fornia Press,Berkeley,Los Angeles,London,for the Center for Chinese Studies of The University of Michigan: MICHIGAN STUDIES ON CHINA Communications and National Integration in Communist China,by Alan P.L.Liu Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture,by Richard Solomon Capital Formation in Mainland China,1952-1965,by Kang Chao Small Groups and Political Rituals in China,by Martin King Whyte Backward Toward Revolution:The Chinese Revolutionary Party,by Edward Friedman Peking Politics,1918-1923:Factionalism and the Failure of Constitutionalism,by Andrew Nathan Michigan Studies on China Published for the Center for Chinese Studies of The University of Michigan
95104 89良3 Ml MICHIGAN STUDIES ON CHINA The Presidency of China's Economic Development:The Interplay of Scarcity Yuan Shih-k'ai and Ideology,by Alexander Eckstein The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence:India and Indochina, by Allen S.Whiting Liberalism and Dictatorship in The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai:Liberalism and Dictator- Early Republican China ship in Early Republican China,by Ernest P.Young ERNEST P.YOUNG The research on which these books are based was supported by the Center for Chinese Studies of The University of Michigan. Ann Arbor The University of Michigan Press
Acknowledgments My interest in the period of China's 1911 Revolution began in seminars at Harvard University.It led to work on the late Ch'ing revolutionary move- ment and to a dissertation on Liang Ch'i-ch'ao,the writer and politician, during the 1911 Revolution and the immediately following years.Liang's essays and letters provided a convenient point of entry into the politics of the period.But a wider view was necessary,it seemed to me,if one were to interpret adequately the various political forces and their interaction during the early years of the Chinese republic.After publishing some of this ear- lier work in articles,I turned to the task of researching a fuller range of political movement when Yuan Shih-k'ai was Chinese president.This book is the result. I have gained inestimably from the careful reading and perspicacious criticisms of the manuscript by Joe Esherick,Stephen MacKinnon,Donald Sutton,and Marilyn Blatt Young.Ch'i Hsi-sheng,John Fairbank,Albert Feuerwerker,Andrew Nathan,and Keith Schoppa also read the manuscript in whole or in part,and I am grateful for their comments and suggestions. Chang Hao and George Sun-Chain Lin provided extraordinary linguistic as- sistance at different stages of my research,although neither they nor any of the readers are responsible for errors of fact,interpretation,or translation. While pursuing this project,I was courteously served by the staffs of these libraries and archives:Asia Library,University of Michigan;East Asiatic Library,University of California at Berkeley;Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University;Gaiko Shiryokan,Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo;Harvard-Yenching Library,Harvard University;Hoover Library, Stanford;Houghton Library,Harvard University;Institute of Modern His. tory,Academia Sinica,Taipei;Kensei Shiryoshitsu,Diet Library,Tokyo; Kuomintang Archives,Taiwan;Mitchell Library,Sydney;National Ar- 4
viⅷAcknowledgments chives,Washington,D.C.;Library of Congress,Washington,D.C.;Public Record Office,London;and Toyo Bunko,Tokyo.For guiding me to li- braries and archives in their countries and for their generous hospitality,I wish to thank Professors Banno Masataka,Chang Peng-yuan,Ichiko Chuzo,Ikei Masaru,Kato Yozo,and Nakamura Tadashi. The extensive traveling and the research leaves,without which this study could not have been completed,were sustained by grants from the Contents Center for Chinese Studies at the University of Michigan,the East Asian Research Center at Harvard University,the U.S.Office of Education,and the Social Science Research Council. I am grateful to Penny Greene and Eva Chan for their patience and per- severance in typing the manuscript.The work of Elnor Parker and her staff at the University of Michigan Press has been careful and creative,as they Introduction 1 have wrestled with the special problems of scholarly publishing on China. Chapter 1. China in the Early Twentieth Century 5 To Chang Ch'un-shu,friend and colleague,I owe a special debt for his calligraphic contribution to the design of the book jacket. Chapter 2.The Birth of the Republic 27 Finally,I should note that I follow the customary adaptations of the Chapter 3. The Presidential Team 50 Wade-Giles system of transliterating Chinese.I am perhaps more sparing Chapter 4.The Liberal Republic 76 than most with the umlaut,which I reserve for circumstances where it is phonemically necessary.Hence,Li Lieh-chun,but Yuan Shih-k'ai. Chapter 5.Yuan's Confrontation with Liberal Government and the Provinces 105 Chapter 6. Establishing the Dictatorship 138 Chapter 7.Yuan's Programs 177 Chapter 8.The Monarchical Attempt 210 Chapter 9.The Presidency in History 241 Abbreviations 255 Notes 257 Glossary 319 Works Cited 323 Index 339 Illustrations (following page 146)
Tables 1.Chinese Generals as of March,1913,with Training at Japan's Army Officers'Academy 61 2.Japanese-Trained Chinese Generals,March,1913,in Positions Appointed by the Peking Government 61 3.Inventory of Public and Private Schools in Hunan,Mid-1913 95 4.Modern-Style Divisions in the Early Republic by Province 101 5.Estimates of the Number of Chinese Soldiers,1911-28 164 Maps Revolutionary Provinces in 1911 29 Degrees of Integration into Peking's Administration by Province,July,1915 141