50 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS'”OF REFORM 51 but inoperative series of paper reforms.What militated most against them the last expedient which would have occurred to them.The "battle of was the inability of Kuang Hsu to inspire the official class with confidence. concessions"was the background for the "Hundred Days";the powers In 1898 he was an untried factor in politics,and his rash explosive out- seemed to leer at China,waiting like ogres to devour her.It was in the burst was not calculated to win the support of wary and experienced face of this menace that the reformers worked with furious haste to inject officials.Kang himself later admitted that the Emperor had forfeited the into China before it was too late some of the force in which the barbarians backing of the very class on which he had every need to depend. excelled.What Kang said later of Kuang Hsu held good for the attitude Whereas any given official might previously have felt assured that if he adhered of the group about him: to the Emperor's side and the Emperor ousted the Empress from power he would have the reward of comfortable continuance in office on the old lines,it was now ...he saw his country about to sink in the earth,about to be buried in.ruins, evident that supporting the Emperor meant acquiescence,if not zealous co-operation, about to burst like an egg,about to be divided up,about to mortify,about to be torn in changes that might seriously affect the whole position of the official class,curtailing in shreds,about to become like India or Anam,or Burmah-a dependent of another their authority and diminishing their pecuniary gains,besides exposing them to the Power!....If one had but the slightest knowledge of this,at every thought of risk of being removed to make place for younger men in fuller sympathy with the it one would get so anxious as to burst into perspiration,and be so angry as to make Sovereign's ideas.95 one's hair stand on end,one's eyes stare out of their sockets,and not be able to endure it for a single day.How much more one of our Emperor's sacred intelligence,who Had there been a great popular desire for reform,the officials,between saw the prosperity of other nations as clear as the sun in the heavens,and thought the upper and nether millstones,might have done their part.As yet, of all his people in dust and ashes!98 however,the lethargic mass of the people was not stirred.Kuang Hsu's With reaction back in the saddle Kuang Hsu's advisers paid dearly 'appeal to a widespread spirit of patriotism came too soon.That spirit for having abetted him.Reform in China had its first martyrs in Yang did not yet exist.All during the summer of 1898,Kuang Hsu and Kang Sheng-hsiu,Yang Jui,Tan Sze-tung,Liu Kuang-ti,Lin Hsio,a descendant Yu-wei spent themselves in the formulation of the mass of decrees flung of the Lin of opium fame,and Kang Kuang-jen,the younger brother of forth from Peking at almost incredible speed.The Emperor proposed, Kang Yu-wei.These young men were arrested after the coup d'etat,and but the local officials throughout the empire disposed.Into the placid received summary execution,due to the importunities of the violent reac- routine of their existences,hitherto so little troubled by direct commands tionary,Kang Yi.The chief object of Tzu Hsi's hate was Kang Yu-wei, from Peking,had now intruded an alarmingly active central government but he had escaped her.The Empress Dowager's demand for his arrest which ordered them to action-and such action!To men steeped in Con- some days before the coup d'etat had convinced Kuang Hsu that his fucianism,the proposed changes were astounding.Even had they been favorite was in imminent danger.Warning was conveyed to Kang through disposed to carry out the imperial commands,sheer ignorance would have the decree of September 17 telling him to hasten to Shanghai at once to handicapped them.The average mandarin,faced with orders to buy take up his duties in connection with the Chinese Progress.9 Tzu Hsi, machinery,start newspapers,open public schools,organize agricultural restored to power,lost no time in sending telegraphic orders for Kang's bureaus,confiscate temples,and the like,saw only one prudent course-to arrest and decapitation,but through a series of fortunate chances he made watch and wait.Peking was far away,and there was no use of being in his way to Tientsin,on the same train with Yuan Shih-kai on his way to too great haste to upset the old order.The imperial gazette was full of reveal the reformers'plot to Jung Lu.At Tientsin he took ship for pathetic edicts,calling on the officials to exert themselves to fulfill their Shanghai,but before he arrived there the British authorities had learned sovereign's will.These appeals had no result.The officials did nothing, of the harsh measures proposed against him and had arranged,unofficially, sure that the pyrotechnic display at Peking could not go on forever. his transfer to a P.&O.steamer,which carried him safely to Hong Their inaction was justified by the coup d'etat,which in reinstating Tzu Kong.100 There he could view with security the philippics launched against Hsi seemed to foretell years of comfortable conservatism. The leaders of the 1898 reform movement have often been blamed for For a discussion of the interrelation between the policies of the foreign powers failing to enlist the co-operation of the foreign powers.It was perhaps and the 1898 reform attempt,see Steiger,China and the Occident,chapter iv. 8 Kang Yeu Wei,article cited,Contemporary Review,August 1899. 9s China No.1 (1899),Inclosure 2 in No.401. Reform Decrees,September 17,26. For such edicts,see Reform Decrees,June 26,July 16,24,August 24,26,27,30, 100 China No.1 (1899),No.401;inclosure 1 in No.401,inclosure in No.379; September 12. Richard,of.cit.,pp.264-266. [50] [51]
52 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS'”OF REFORM 53 him by the Empress Dowager but in the name of his friend and patron, tions of his approaching demise.In Peking there was much talk that Kuang Hsu.Fortunate for Kang that he was safe in Hong Kong;he Kuang Hsu would surely pass-out with the old year,if not before.10s Yet was pilloried as arch-deceiver of his sovereign and an intended revolution- he lived to spend ten years in duress.He owed his survival in part to the ary,death by "slicing"was pronounced upon him,spies were sent to seek insistence of the foreign representatives that he be given proper medical him out,his writings were ordered burned,and his property was confis- examination.100 But even more was he indebted for the doubtful blessing cated.0 Liang Chi-chao was also sentenced to death,but like his teacher of longer life to the Empress Dowager's fear of active protest in the gained his way to safety.Thus had two more liberals joined Sun Yat-sen southern and liberal provinces,which had been more attached to the in exile. reform movement.All six of the martyrs were Chinese,and indeed Can- Others of the Emperor's supporters suffered dismissal or great loss of tonese,and after their deaths Tzu Hsi found it necessary to insist by edict rank.Space permits but the mention of a few of them-Chen Pao-chen, that she had no intention of practicing discrimination in favor of her who had recommended Kang Yu-wei;02 Chang Yin-huan,whose life was fellow Manchus.110 Moreover,Kuang Hsu,now rendered entirely harm- saved only by the representations of the British Minister;10s and Weng less,continued to serve as a decorous cloak for the fact that China was Tung-ho,who though he had been out of office since June,was cashiered once more ruled by a woman.Just as Kuang Hsu's advocates disappeared in a remarkable edict purporting to be the words of Kuang Hsu and from the scene,so did his projected reforms.For a time the empire was accusing him of having steadily corrupted his sovereign by wrong training edified by the spectacle of the Empress Dowager offering reform senti- in youth and of having committed an unforgiveable offense by his approval ments with one hand and rescinding reform decrees with the other.On of Kang Yu-wei.104 Some,seeing the writing on the wall,hastened to September 26,a blanket decree repealed most of her nephew's paper petition that punishment be meted out to them,hoping thus to appeal to reforms.The sinecure posts which he had threatened were restored,to the imperial clemency,which had been much vaunted in the edicts after set at rest the fluttering dovecotes of the official class;the greater freedom the coup.10 Among those who thus asked a fitting penalty was Jung Lu, of memorializing which he had instituted was given up in favor of the who had recommended Chen Pao-chen.100 He could do so with no appre- old regulations governing petitions to the throne;the Chinese Progress hensions,for he was already marked as that man above all others whom was banned as a potential source of restlessness;of the projected school Tzu Hsi delighted to honor.Soon after the overthrow of Kuang:Hsu, system,only Peking University and such institutions as had already been Jung Lu was made a member of the Grand Council,commander of all established in provincial capitals were allowed to survive.At the same armies and fleets in the Peiyang administration,and Comptroller-General time,the decree emphasized the desire of the government for certain of the affairs of the Board of War.So little effect did his self-accusation reforms especially suited to the time,these being the encouragement of have that even before sentence had been pronounced on him he received trade,the arts,and better agriculture,and,especially,an extension of the additional office.of commander of all forces in the neighborhood of military drill. Peking,and the penalty which he ultimately received was only a nominal The proposed encouragement of agriculture and trade was rendered one.10 Many other officials who had not obeyed Kuang Hsu's orders too illusory by a decree abolishing the central bureau established by Kuang Hsu briskly were given increases in prestige and power. and leaving the direction of such improvement.to the provincial man- Kuang Hsu seemed for a time on the verge of "mounting the Dragon" darins.112 Suggestions to commute the annual rice tribute to a money pay- for his last journey on high.The imperial gazette made ominous references ment were met by insistence on the greater virtue of the good old way.i1a to the decline of "Our"health,which were generally received as indica- The eight-legged essay was once more enthroned as the piece de resistance 10 Reform Decrees,September 29,October 1,November 19,December 28. 102 Ibid.,October 6. 10s Ibid,September 25;Bland and Backhouse,op.cit.,pp.215-216;Conger, Letters from China,pp.24-25. 10s Ibid.,December 4. 10 China No..1(1899),No5.363,373. 10 Ibid.,September 29,October 4. 110 Reform Decrees,October 8. 105 Ibid.,October 8. 111Ibid.,September 26. 10 lbid.,September 28,29,October 11,16. 112 Ibid.,October 9. o Ibid.,September 25. 11s Ibid.,October 2. [52] [53]
54 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS”OF REFORM 55 of the literary examinations;4 no one then could foresee that three years increment.Kang Yu-wei had drawn on the West for the devices by which later Tzu Hsi herself was to give it its death-blow.The literati and all he hoped to save China from disaster,and his victorious opponents readily who aspired to that status were assured that the old examination system extended their hatred for Kang to his preceptors.120 As time went on the would go on unchanged.Even the tests for aspirants to military rank were Empress Dowager's tender interest in military augmentation came to have to resume their old form.Tzu Hsi expressed fear that the duties of the unpleasant possibilities for the foreigners resident in China.Yet Tzu Hsi abolished governorships might be weighing too heavily on the viceroys who herself knew well the wisdom of suaviter in modo,fortiter in re.To had inherited them,and this solicitude was soon confirmed by anan- demonstrate her coriciliatory attitude toward all things and persons of nouncement that the posts in question,and also that of Director-General of Western origin,she deigned to receive in audience the wives of the diplo- the Yellow River,were to be restored.1 Such sinecures often were most mats in Peking.It was a pleasant social occasion,and "The Dowager- convenient rewards to the loyal but not over-gifted.The Empress Dowager Empress made a most favourable impression,both by the personal interest seemed especially apprehensive of any spread of sentiment in favor of the she took in all her guests and by her courteous amiability."Tzu.Hsi's abortive effort of Kuang Hsu.Newspapers were suppressed,with the affability did much to turn diplomatic opinion in her favor.It was the assertion that they were the scheme of the dregs of the literati to excite fashion even among the Occidentals in Peking to decry Kuang Hsu's the masses.China seemed to be settling back easily and quickly into the misguided zeal.12 To all 'outward seeming,the "Hundred Days"had old ways. achieved nothing.But here and there the imaginations of individuals had The Empress Dowager never ceased to protest her zeal for any good been stirred,and the day when a more pretentious and hopeful effort at and needful change.18 The decree of October 7 urged all officials to con- regeneration was to take the stage was brought perceptibly nearer.Reform tinue to search for talented men able to better the condition of the people. soon was to have a greater and more forceful advocate than Kuang Hsu- Edicts counseled special kindness to soldiers.Moreover,Tzu Hsi seemed Tzu Hsi herself. in her old age to have developed an almost pathological sympathy for bandits and robbers.Officials were urged to use leniency in dealing with those who took only a minor part in bandit raids,and the laws of the 12 China No.1(1899),No.401. 121Ibid.,No.426. empire were combed for precedents for kind treatment of mere accom- 12 Ibid.,No.401. plices.The real object of these maneuvers was made apparent in a decree urging all such men to repent and change their life of lawlessness for one of military service for the empire.The only trace of reforming energy left alive in governmental circles was the Empress Dowager's desire to recruit the defense forces of the realm,and even then the methods she approved were dubious and the results more dubious still,as the Boxer movement showed. The year 1898 left as a residue a distinct anti-foreign impetus.This was the natural outcome of the policy pursued in China throughout the nineteenth century by the powers and,more specifically,of their depreda- tions during the time since the German action in Shantung.To the feeling of dislike thus engendered the unsuccessful reform experiment added its 1 Reform Decrees,November 13. 11s Ibid.,October 11,November 1. 1 Ibid,October 9. 11 Ibid.,November 16. 118 Ibid.,October 7. 11 Ibid,October 7,24,25,November 6,7,8. [54] [55]
THE EMPRESS DOWAGER'S CONVERSION 57 given countenance to the activities of the Boxers.She had left Peking as the discredited patron of reaction;she was to return as the leader of III.THE EMPRESS DOWAGER'S CONVERSION reform.She had not learned to admire the foreigners;there was little in their conduct in China during the nineteenth century which entitled them When Tzu Hsi again "dropped the curtain"and assumed control of to respect or affection.In her eyes they were still worthy of the epithet, the state,reaction seemed enthroned and reform a forgotten interlude. "foreign barbarians."But she had come to realize that the foreign powers But in 1900 came the Boxer rising,with its futile effort to drive the were strong,stronger by far than the Chinese Empire,despite its more foreigners into the sea and restore China to her ancient calm and isola- venerable civilization,and that for the sake both of the Chinese people tion.There is no need to deal here with the events of that "midsummer themselves and of the enfeebled Manchu dynasty China must borrow madness,"1 but its consequences are of transcendant importance in this from the West the institutions and ideas which seemed to be the secrets exposition.For the second time in her life the Empress Dowager perforce of its power.Tzu Hsi faced the issue squarely,and throwing overboard went on her travels,and few journeys in all history have had such a her conservative prejudices of a few short months before,came forth profound educational value as the westward tour of Her Majesty Tzu Hsi as the advocate of what was in substance (though she took pains to deny in the years 1900 and 1901.In her exile the "Old Buddha"had to endure the fact)the policy which Kuang Hsu had put forward in 1898.It was conditions which were harsh beyond anything dreamed of in the Summer a remarkable demonstration of educability on the part of an elderly Palace,though only too comparable to the ordinary lot of most of her woman long accustomed to the atmosphere of a palace,an environment subjects."We [the Empress Dowager and the Emperor]were both clad notoriously not conducive to open-mindedness. in the meanest of garments,and to relieve our hunger we were scarcely A decree of August 20 issued in the name of the luckless Kuang Hsu, able to obtain a dish of beans or porridge.Few of 'our poorest subjects but expressing the sentiments of his aunt,marked the official debut of the have suffered greater hardships of cold and hunger than befell us in this new policy.In it the Emperor,in accordance with Chinese political theory, pitiful plight"she later declared,perhaps not without a self-congratulatory accepted responsibility for the disasters which had befallen his people and exaggeration of past trials.?While she faced privation,her mind was called on high provincial and metropolitan officials to come to his side to filled with thought of the vengeance which the enraged powers might aid in the formulation of a progressive policy suited to the times.This work on China and especially on the woman who had done so much to document was followed on January 8,1901,by a decree issued from Sian support the Boxers.This dread was shared by many of her advisers, which was virtually the charter of the reform movement under imperial such as Chang Chih-tung,and expressed itself in agitated discussion of auspices which filled the remaining years of Tzu Hsi's dominance.Speak- the wisdom of removing the capital from Peking to a less vulnerable spot. ing again in the name of the Emperor,she expatiated on the desirability Such proposals won the prompt negative of Jung Lu,however,and that of change to meet the exigencies of the time but carefully foreswore any statesman's advice was at a premium,in view of the fact that he had intention of following the treacherous and anarchical policy of Kang earlier given Tzu Hsi the wise-and unheeded-warning that to give ear Yu-wei.There are times when,to save one's face,it is not expedient to to the Boxers was folly.Disquiet among the exiled court was allayed by call a spade a spade.Following this disclaimer came the real meat of the intimations that the foreigners had no intention of dismembering China edict: or of punishing her de facto ruler,and in time word came that the Court was to be allowed to return to Peking. We have to-day received Her Majesty's orders,and learn that she is now thoroughly bent on radical reform.Nevertheless,whilst we are convinced of the The Tzu Hsi who was thus permitted to resume her regency for the necessity of blending in one harmonious form of administration the best customs and helpless Kuang Hsu was no longer the conservative woman who had traditions of Chinese and European Governments,there is to be no talk of reaction or revolution.The chief defect in our system of administration is undoubtedly too 1 For the events of the Boxer Rebellion,see Clements,The Borer Rebellion; close an adherence to obsolete methods,a too slavish devotion to the written word; Smith,China in Convulsion;Steiger,China and the Occident. the result is a surfeit of commonplace and inefficient oficials,and a deplorable lack of men of real talent.The average commonplace man makes a god of the written 2 Bland and Backhouse,China under the Empress Dowager,p.379. word,whilst every bureaucrat in the land regards it as a talisman wherewith to fill 3 Ibid.,pp.353-354;The Times,July 1,1901. See United States Foreign Relations,1901,Appendix,pp.34-35. Bland and Backhouse,op.cit.,pp.393-395. 56] 【56] [57]
58 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE EMPRESS DOWAGER'S CONVERSION 59 his purse,so that we have huge mountains of correspondence eternally growing up The critique of Chinese officialdom contained in this plain-speaking between one government office and another,the value of which is absolutely mil so far as any good to the country is concerned.On the other hand,men of real ability document was a just one based on long experience,and the reforms lose heart and give up the public service in disgust,prevented from coming to the designated as most needful were worthy of their selection.But again front by the mass of inefficiency that blocks the way.Our whole system of govern- there arose the problem which had baffled Kuang Hsu-how to transmute ment has come to grief through corruption,and the first steps of progress in our imperial decrees into facts.Before making any definite move to carry out Empire are clogged by the fatal word "Precedent." the intentions she had announced,Tzu Hsi first turned to the disposal of Up to the present the study of European methods has gone no further than a certain problems which were pending.The son of Prince Tuan,the superficial knowledge of the languages,literature and mechanical arts of the West, but it must he evident that these things are not the essentials upon which European Boxer leader,who had been proclaimed as heir apparent to Kuang Hsu civilisation has been founded.The essential spirit of that civilisation is to be looked in 1900,was degraded from that high estate,as an indication that the for in the fact that real sympathy and understanding exists between rulers and people, party of which his father had been leader was definitely out of favor. that officials are required to be truthful in word and courageous in action.The On February 13,1901,an illuminating pair of edicts appeared,in one of teachings handed down to us by our sacred ancestors are really the same as those which the Empress Dowager,with a weather eye to posterity,ordered the upon which the wealth and power of European countries have been based,but China rectification of the dynastic records of the Boxer period.The other was has hitherto failed to realise this and has been content to acquire the rudiments of European languages or technicalities,while changing nothing of her ancient habits of a formal penitential decree,in which the Throne again acknowledged its inefficiency and deep-rooted corruption.Ignoring our real nceds we have so far taken guilt but also pointed out that it had been in part the dupe of bad advisers from Europe nothing but externals;how can we possibly hope to advance on such and disloyal officials."These matters disposed of,Tzu Hsi then turned to lines?Any reforms to be effective and permanent must be made with a real desire the problem of making the much-needed changes in the Chinese govern- for efficiency and honesty. mental machine.April 23 saw the appointment of a very important body, We therefore hereby decree and command that the officials concerned shall now the Board of State Affairs,charged with the task of collecting reform make close enquiry and comparison as to the various systems of government in force in European countries with special reference to those which obtain in China to-day, proposals and separating the wheat from the chaff.To this board were not only as regards the constitution of the Court and central government,but also appointed such men as.Prince Ching,Jung Lu,and Li Hung-chang,while concerning those things which make for the prosperity of our subjects,such as the Liu Kun-yi and Chang Chih-tung,who had done much to earn the system of examinations and education,the administration of the army and the regula- Throne's gratitude by preserving peace in the Yangtse region,were to tion of finance.They will be required to report as to what changes are advisable and serve as advisory members.?Decrees were then issued designed to make what institutions should be abolished;what methods we should adopt from abroad and what existing Chinese institutions should be retained.The things we chiefy need a start toward procuring for China the"constant supply of men of talent" are a constant supply of men of talent,a sound basis of national finance,and an and the "efficient army"which the edict of January 28 had set as prime ficient army.···: desiderata.10 The first essential.however,more important even than the devising of new On October 6,1901,the couft began the long journey from Sian to systems,is to secure men of administrative ability.Without talent no system can be Peking.En route Tzu Hsi issued decrees to assure the foreigners of her made to succeedl.If the letter of our projected reforms be not illuminated and guided by this spirit of efficiency in our officials then must all our hopes of reforming the intended good behavior,promising that the Emperor would promptly State disappear into the limbo of lost ideals.We fully recognize that foolish receive the diplomatic representatives on his return,while she herself adherence to the system of promotion by seniority has been one of the main factors would condescend to entertain the wives of the ministers as she had in in bringing about a condition of affairs that is almost incurable.If we would now pre-Boxer days.Far more radical than these proffers of hospitality was he rid of it,our first step evidently is to think no more of selfish interests,but to the invitation to the members of the diplomatic group to witness the consider the commonwealth only and to secure efficiency by some new and definite method,so that competent persons only may be in charge of public affairs.But if Bland and Backhouse,op.cit,pp.381-382. you,our officials,continue to cling to your ancient ways,following the ruts of pro- 8Ibid.pp.375-381. crastination and slothful ease;should you persist in evading responsibility,serving the State with empty catchwords while you batten on the fruits of your misdeeds, The Times,April 24,1901.On August 20,1901,this body issued a series of assuredly the punishment which the law provides stands ready and no merey will be regulations to govern its conduct,which contained,en passast,some very acute shown you!Let this Decree be promulgated throughout the land.a observations on the needs of China at the time.(United States Consular Reports, January 1902.) For the full text of this decree,quoted here in part,see Bland and Backhouse, 10 These decrees will be discussed together with the other changes in educational np.ril.,pp.419-424. and military arrangements of the period 1901-1911. I58」 【9]