30 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS'”OF REFORM 31 China's impotence in the face of the demands of the foreign powers was his cousin,Tsai Tien,also a grandson of the Emperor Tao Kuing, brought reform zeal to fever heat,"It may fairly be said that,in the but possessing as his most valuable qualification the fact that he was Tzu spring of 1898,all the younger members of the mandarinate and the Hsi's nephew.His selection was in violation of immemorial custom,for gentry were reformers-some of them,perhaps,with a confused idea of being of the same generation as Tung Chih,he was unable to render what reform meant,but all ready to support moderate reform,and some resolved on radical measures."1 Just when the campaign of foreign ag- proper filial reverence to the spirit of his predecessor,and this aspect of the succession aroused many protests. gression was getting under way,Kang Yu-wei had come to Peking to From the very outset then,the Emperor Kuang Hsu (his reign name, take up a position as under-secretary to the Board of Works and,moved meaning "Brilliant Succession")was simply a tool in the hands of the by the spectacle of China's increasing weakness,he wrote an "Appeal to Empress Dowager.His minority was passed under her control,especially the Emperor on Behalf of the Nation and the Empire,"in which he bit- after the death of the co-regent,Tzu An.Even when in 1889 Tzu Hsi terly described the decay of the dynasty and the people of China and surrendered the nominal control of the government,she kept the reality again cited the cases of Russia under Peter the Great and of modern of power,appointing and dismissing officials and reading all state docu- Japan as the models which China must follow He urged the calling of a ments.2 She also arranged the marriage of Kuang Hsu to her niece,so council to discuss the measures advisable in the crisis,and pleaded for administrative reform.The conclusion of the appeal stated: that 'she might have first-hand reports on all his doings.Outwardly at least,the Emperor exhibited proper respect for his august aunt.But it is If Your Majesty will not decide,or will prefer to remain in the old grooves not to be wondered at that he came to desire the reality and not the mere of the Conservatives,then your territories will be swallowed up,your limbs will be semblance of power. bound,your viscera will be cut out,and Your Majesty will scarcely manage to retain your throne or to rule over more than a fragment of your ancient Empire !20 Unfortunately for his aspirations and hopes,Kuang Hsu was not of the material which makes successful autocrats.Frail,delicate,and sensi- The appeal was not in vain.The time was at hand when the Emperor tive,he was no match for the shrewd woman who,while apparently in would exert himself on behalf of his people,for in June 1898 was to retreat after her long regency,still watched the course of affairs with a begin the“Hundred Days'”of reform. wary eye.Kuang Hsu had his moments of decision and his flashes of The Emperor who thus came forward as the protagonist of reform temper,but they were not indicative of a very stern and resisting quality. was His Imperial Majesty Kuang Hsu,then a young man in the "late Emotionally he was intense,intellectually he was diffuse.One cannot twenties."He owed his imperial position chiefly to the determination and read the story of his struggle with the powers which in the end overcame ambition of his aunt,the Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi When the Emperor him without feeling a profound sympathy for him as a man of fine im- Hsien Feng had died in 1861,during the troublous times of the Taiping pulses and intentions,hampered by the enervating conditions which rebellion,he had left as his heir a boy of five,the son not of the imperial surrounded him and by some deficiency which made him incapable of consort but of his secondary wife.During the minority of the new Em- grappling successfully with practical problems.2s He possessed an abun- peror,who assumed the reign name of Tung Chih,China was thus under dance of that quality that the sage Mencius had declared to be the very the control of a co-regency,the power being shared between the consort essence of the true imperial ruler,benevolence embracing all within his of the late Emperor,Tzu An,and the mother of Tung Chih,who now kingdom;yet had it not been for his contact with the "Modern Sage," became known as Tzu Hsi.In 1872 the Emperor came of age.He did Kang Yu-wei,these humanitarian and patriotic impulses would probably not live to enjoy his power long.He died in 1875 and was soon followed have remained half-formed,nebulous ideas destined to have no definite to the grave by his widow and their unborn child."Tung Chih's successor expression. 1Morse,International Relations,III,132.20 Wen Ching,op.cit.,pp.53-54. az Bland and Backhouse,op.cit.,p.162;Wen Ching,op.cit,p.112. a1 It has often been intimated that Tzu Hsi put her son out of the way so that she might continue to control the state (see Bland and Backhouse,China under the 28 For an illuminating description of Kuang Hsu,see Boulger,A Short History Empress Dowager,p.119).Princess Der Ling rejects this story,stating definitely of China,p.353.It has sometimes been declared that Kuang Hsu was mentally that Tung Chih died of smallpox.She does assert,however,that Tzu Hsi urged deficient.Princess Der Ling,who used to see him regularly in the days after he Tung Chih's widow to commit suicide as an act of marital piety and in order to had become a prisoner,rebuts these accusations.She declares that she always found avoid having to surrender to her the regency (Der Ling,Old Buddha,pp.171-173). him intelligent and very well informed about the Occident(Der Ling,Two Years in the Forbidden City,pp.113-115). 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32 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS”OF REFORM 33 As a child,Kuang Hsu had shown a great interest in Western me- and adviser,Jung Lu.The Empress thus supported the Manchu aggrega- chanical toys,and as he grew older he secured a small telegraph,a steam tion and the Emperor the southerners,so that the groups came to be launch,and a narrow-gauge railway,which were employed in the For- popularly known as "Old Mother's set,"and "Small Lad's set."ar An bidden City for his amusement and that of the court.34 The men who interesting comment on the state of affairs is to be found in the report of directed his education,men such as Marquis Tseng and Weng Tung-ho, an interview with Kang Yu-wei in 1898,after the coup d'etat had termi- were liberal in their inclinations.When in 1893 the Emperor desired to nated his brief career as deus ex machina. learn English,two Tungwen graduates were chosen to instruct him, though there is no record that he made remarkable progress.25 On the According to K'ang's account the relations between the Empress-Dowager and sixtieth birthday of the Empress Dowager a handsome copy of the New the Emperor have never been anything but strained.She has resented all attempts on his part to exercise real power,and he has felt deeply the position of inferiority Testament was presented to her by a large number of Chinese Christian and subjection in which she has until recently succeeded in keeping him.Until the women.Whether or not the gift had any effect on Tzu Hsi,it at least Emperor became an ardent convert to the cause of reform this struggle seems to aroused the interest of the Emperor,who at once procured missionary have been mainly one for power generally,without any striking difference in the literature of all sorts.China's losses in the Sino-Japanese War still fur- ends for which power was to be used,and high officials sought the favour of the ther directed the interest of the Emperor toward the West and he read Emperor or Empress according to their belief in the probability of the one or the other obtaining or keeping the.upper hand,the opinions of these officials as to the eagerly all the books relating to the foreigners that he could obtain.2 necessity of reform or their contrary determination to keep to the old ways,not Japan's victory and the opening episodes of the "battle of conces- entering into the question.It was,in short,a conflict involving no difference of sions"filled Kuang Hsu with a great desire to take the.lead in the regen- principle,28 eration of his empire.Yet it was impossible for him to be a free agent. The year 1898 had scarcely begun before there were indications of He might wish to disregard his aunt,but the wish did not automatically the unprecedented events which it was to witness.On January 3,Kang eliminate her as a power in the administration.Moreover,all around Kuang Hsu moved the drama of court intrigue,in which he himself was Yu-wei was given an audience with the Tsungli Yamen,thanks to the inevitably involved as the figure upon which one faction pinned its hopes influence of his advocate,Weng Tung-ho.He expounded to that body of power.Most of the officials at the capital were allied with one or the his views on reform,which were reported to Kuang Hsu,who called on Kang to submit them in the form of a memorial.The resulting document other of two groups,the northern,or Manchu,party,or the southern,or reiterated the suggestions made in the grand memorial of 1895.Kang Chinese,group.Such a division was natural enough.The Manchus had also sent to the Emperor his works on England and Continental Europe, originally established their supremacy by conquest,and many native Chi- a comparative diagram of all nations,Timothy Richard's History of the nese felt a certain sentiment against their preponderant infuence,while Nineteenth Century,and translations of Western books.20 Thus was laid the Manchus tended to draw together to strengthen their own interests. There was also a line of cleavage between the younger and more enthu- the basis for the later co-operation between the Emperor and the scholar. The decrees of June 11 are usually taken as having begun the "Hun- siastic men and the older and more conservative.There was no hard and fast division,but the liberals and younger Chinese,many of whom came dred Days of Reform,"but from January on appeared a number of decrees on military reform,inspired by the northern leaders,Hsu Tung from the southern provinces,tended to gather about Weng Tung-ho and Pan Tsu-yin,while the Manchus and those of a more conservative turn and Kang Yi,a demonstration that the Manchu group was not uncom- of mind looked to Hsu Tung and Li Hsung-tsao.As far as the Emperor promisingly opposed to change per se.The decree of January 17 con- tained these significant words: was concerned Weng was in a very advantageous position,for he had seen many years'service as imperial tutor,with free access to the sover- Since our war with Japan we have received successively a number of memorials eign's person.His relations with the Empress Dowager were not so for- from both our Metropolitan as well as Provincial officials of all grades,recommend- ing methods by following which our Empire could be strengthened and our integrity tunate,for she shared the dislike felt toward him by her lifelong friend ar Bland and Backhouse,op.cit.,pp.180-181. 24 Headland,Court Life in Ching,pp.115-122. 28 Chino No.I (1899),inclosure 2 in No.401,Memorandum of Conversation 26 Martin,A Cycle of Cathay,p.316. with Kang Yu-wei on Voyage from Shanghai to Hong Kong,September 27-29,1898. 2 Richard,op.cit.,p.224;Headland,op.cit.,pp.123,126-128. 2 Kang Yeu Wei,"The Reform of China and the Revolution of 1898,"in Con- femporary Review,August 1899. 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34 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS”OF REFORM 35 maintained.This sort of thing has gone on for quite two years,yet whenever questions of vital itportance arise with Foreign Powers,these very men who sought Emperor was blocked by the same force which was to contribute im- to advise us were ever found wanting and powerless to do anything,as if their mensely to his ultimate failure-the inertia of the provincial adminis- hands were firmly tied.This is the case with them now,in a crisis where we are trators. beset on all sides by powerful neighbours who craftily seek advantage from us and A few novel suggestions on other subjects than military affairs were who are trying to combine together in overpowering us.This is because they see received during this period.A scheme was sanctioned for the raising of our defensive preparations in a state of neglect and decay and our fleet small and insignificant.In our opinion,therefore,the question of the present day is that we a national loan from the people of China by the sale of so-called "Chao begin in reforming ourselves and diligently reorganize our defences.ao Hsin"bonds.The imperial edict declared that in the sale of the bonds "neither force nor coercion would be allowed"on the part of officials,but The measures decreed to achieve this end were the elimination of numerous memorials soon made it plain that in many provinces the bonds peculation,especially in regard to the insertion of dummy names on the were used as a means of extorting money from the people,and on Sep- regimental rolls and the graft involved in the collection of internal transit tember 7 their sale was ordered stopped."4 On February 16 a memorial dues (liki);the formation of volunteer corps to "strengthen the de- from Wang Peng-yun,a censor,proposed the establishment in Peking of fenses of the Empire with a human bulwark of brave and loyal hearts"; a college of foreign literature and science,an idea which was embodied and permission to officials to recommend for posts the men best qualified, in the great edict of June 11.ss regardless of official rank. In late May,an event occurred which both hastened the reform effort This edict inspired a number of reform memorials.Jung Lu himself and made its failure more certain-the death of Prince Kung.This expe- advocated the inclusion in the military examinations of subjects on the rienced statesman,wise,moderate,and of sound judgment,had been per- intercourse of China with foreign nations.Another memorial suggested haps the one person at court to whom all deferred.His death left the that in the future candidates for military rank be tested in their skill with Emperor with no experienced guide except Weng Tung-ho.But with the the rifle rather than the traditional but useless bow and arrow.One offi- death of his patron,Prince Kung,Weng felt sure that his days in office cial went so far as to propose the disbandment of all troops trained in the were numbered.Early in June he applied for a week's leave on account old manner and the establishment of modern military schools throughout of illness,as a step preparatory to saving face if the crash came.He also the empire.These memorials were considered by the Grand Council took this occasion to recommend Kang Yu-wei to the Emperor,in the and Board of War,which deeided that henceforth candidates for military hope that Kang would take his place as an opponent of the faction of the degrees would be tested in the use of firearms and that the old practice Empress Dowager and the Manchus.Weng's expectations were fulfilled. of reproducing by heart passages from the classical books on military He was dismissed from office on June 15.The prime mover in this act tactics would be abolished. was not,of course,the Emperor,but the Empress Dowager;to put it Not much was done to carry out the imperial commands for the aboli- briefly,the dismissal of Weng was the price which the "Old Buddha" tion of "skeleton"battalions and similar devices which redounded to the demanded for her sanction of the famous edicts of June 11.The Em- financial benefit of the officers involved and the weakening of the empire. peror had prudently submitted the draft decrees to his aunt,who had no A few officials reported on the methods which they had used in reform- objections to the policy therein outlined provided that it did not lessen the ing the troops under their jurisdiction.3a On the whole,however,the time-honored privileges of the Manchus;but,at the same time,she insisted on the dismissal of Weng,and Kuang Hsu had to agree.s a0 The Emperor Kuang Hsu's Reform Decrees,1898 (reprinted from the North- China Daily News,January 17),referred to hereafter as Reform Decrees.As the Thus,with the Empress Dowager's approval,Kuang Hsu set out on reader will observe,the English translations of imperial edicts.which appeared in his endeavor to awaken and strengthen China by copying the methods of the North-China Herald in these years are often neither idiomatic nor grammatical. her potential destroyers,the powers of the West.The first of the two The writer has,however,deemed it better to quote them exactly rather than to make decrees of June 11,which proclaimed the opening of a new era,empha- changes which might in some cases make the meaning less close to that of the original. a1 Reform Decrees,January 28,February 16. s For decrees regarding the Chao Hsin Bonds,see Reform Decrees,February 4, s2 Ibid.,March 19. 27,May 18,July 5,August 22,September 7. ab Ibid.,February 15. ss Tbid.,February 11,March 7. se Bland and Backhouse,op.cit.,pp.184-185;China No.1,(1899),No.268. 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36 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS”OF REFORM 37 sized the need of having able diplomatic representatives,and ordered the to build on newer and more advantageous foundations.We must also select such officials of the realm to recommend subjects of Western knowledge as will keep us in touch with the times and diligently ...the men they think best qualified for such posts,who,by their general conduct, study them and practise them in order to place our country abreast with other have shown their education and abilities to be of a practical and high order,and countries.Let us cast off from us the empty,unpractical,and deceiving things which who are not enveloped in the narrow circle of bigoted conservatism,and a clinging to obstruct our forward progress,and strive with one-heartedness and energy to improve obsolete and unpractical customs. upon all things that we have learned;let us eliminate the crust of neglect that has accumulated on our system,and cast away the shackles which bind us.In a word, In the second decree the Emperor opened his heart to his people.After let us evolve useful things out of those which hitherto have been useless,and let us summarizing the measures which had already been taken "for starting seek by able instructors to fashion the materials in our possession.With these objects in view let us strive toward advancement and progress. our country on the great road of Progress,"Kuang Hsu uttered his plea for the co-operation of the whole nation in the establishment of the new After this earnest declaration,the Emperor decreed the establishment of order. a new university in Peking,to be open to all,in order to "have many able Some of our aged ministers who have grown grey in the service of the State and and willing helpers in the great and arduous work before us,of putting whose fidelity is unquestioned,in their anxiety for the Empire,have argued that we our country on the level with the best of the Western powers."a ought to stick to the very letter of our ancient institutions and cast away from us the The new policy was accepted with some show of enthusiasm and a suggestions in favour of a new regime.In fact,all sorts of suggestions have been number of young men were recommended to the Emperor as well fitted made by any number of memorialists most of which are empty and vain and im- practicable.Let us ask what other country except our own is there that is labouring to assist him in his plan of reform.As in 1895,reform became for the under such difficulties because of being behind the times?What would our condition time the fashion.Even Jung Lu,strong partisan of the Empress Dowager, be if we do not set about at once to drill and arm our armies after modern methods? urged military reform and recommended Chen Pao-chen,well-known as Will we be able to cut down such expenses?Our scholars are now without solid and a radical.3 The edict of June 13 contained the names of the most im- practical education;our artisans are without scientific instructors;when compared portant of the new men who had been brought to the notice of the with other countries we soon see the glaring difference between our strength and the Emperor.Kang Yu-wei himself and Chang Yuan-chi,a third-class strength of others;and when we compare the ready wealth of this Empire with those of other countries the difference is still greater,to our detriment.Does any one think secretary of the Board of Punishments,"men'of deep learning and ex- that in our present condition he can really say with any truth that our men are as ceptional abilities and progressive ideas,"were ordered to appear before well drilled and well led as any other foreign army;or that we can stand successfully the Emperor on June 16.40 Also mentioned in the edict was Tan Sze-tung, against any of them?We are conscious of the fact that,unless we in our own the son of the Governor of Hupeh,and later to be one of the "martyrs" person decide firmly and strongly,our commands will not go far in execution,while executed after the coup d'etat.Even before becoming a disciple of the greatest dangers lie in the allowing of ignorant persons to meddle and talk.and argue amongst themselves upon subjects they know not of.It is like applying water Kang Yu-wei,Tan had been well known as a writer,lecturer,and reformer to quench fire-all to no purpose. of educational methods.The other new advisers whom the Emperor The methods of government inaugurated by the Sung and Ming dynasties,upon took unto himself in June were Liang Chi-chao,Kang's most notable investigation,reveal nothing that is of any practical use or that may be of advantage disciple,and Huang Chun-hsien,who as Chinese Consul-General at to us.In China,for instance,we have the ethics and doctrines of the sects of Taoism Singapore hadhad considerable contact with foreigners.2 Later Yang Jui, and Buddhism;do they at all agree with the tenets compounded by our five ancient Imperial Sages and three Kings?They are like summer to winter,at opposite Liu Kuang-ti,Lin Hsio,and Tan Sze-tung were formed into a special extremes to one another.Changes must be made to accord with the necessities of council to advise the Emperor on reform measures.All of them paid for the times.It is apparent that we must issue a plain and unvarnished decree on the the service with their lives when the Empress Dowager resumed power.s subject so that all may understand our wishes.Let this therefore be made known to one and all in the four corners of this Empire,from Prince to Duke,from highest to 88 Refornt Decrees,June 11. lowest among the officials of the capital and the provinces,from Court Minister to the most humble of our subjects-let them know that it is our earnest and sincere sIbid.,October 8;Bland and Backhouse,o.cit.,p.197. desire that one and all bend energetically to the duty of striving for higher things, t0 Reform Decrees,June 13. to show all that they are men ambitious to succeed and to advance their country;let us, 4 For an account of the career and writings of Tan Sze-tung see Reinsch, keeping in mind the morals of our sages and wise men,make them the basis on which p.cit,pp.140-147. 42 Reform Decrees,June 13. 87 Reform Decrees,June 11. 4 Ibid.,September 5. 【36] [37]
38 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN CHINA THE“HUNDRED DAYS'”OF REFORM 39 It is said that Kang Yu-wei refused a place on the Grand Council,pre- ferring to avoid the increased jealousy and hatred which would result if sented a number of expedients-the taking over of the surplus of the he thus suddenly attained high official preferment.After his audience China Merchants'Steam Navigation Company,the Telegraph Administra- of June 16,Kang Yu-wei had complete ascendancy over the mind.of tion,and a Canton lottery;inducements to private individuals to donate Kuang Hsu.The official gazette records this audience as the only one funds and facilities;and the conversion of temples into schools to save which the reformer received,but as a matter of fact hardly a day passed the expense of erecting new buildings.When the Empress Dowager faced that Kang and some of his associates did not meet with the Emperor for the need of money for her great educational program of 1904 she could long discussions in which they evolved the startling series of edicts which find no better means than those hit upon in 1898.The problem of text- aimed to revolutionize the life of China.4 books was a considerable one,which was met for the time being by an Even a brief examination of the decrees of this period will reveal their order that local officials at once set up translation bureaus to prepare the vast scope and the variety of innovations which they were intended to necessary books,#a scheme which could not be productive of good results introduce.Education,agriculture,manufacturing,trade,administration, in view of the paucity of trained translators.Nothing was said as to the army and navy-hardly one possible field for change escaped the diligence source of the teachers for the new schools,though there were not in all of the reformers during their brief hegemony,the imperial prerogative China more than a few men competent to instruct in the new subjects. excepted;the fact that the movement was being carried on under imperial A later edict provided for a sort of school board of learned scholars in auspices and through the exercise of the autocratic power of the sovereign each locality to take charge of the initiating of preparatory schools. limited it in the latter regard. The direction of these educational changes was in the hands of Sun It was not without reason that the Emperor had decided on the Chia-nai,who had aided the Reform Club in 1895.Although a conserva- establishment of a university as the first visible sign of his new policy. tive,Sun was notably loyal to the Emperor.Fortunately for his future He and his young advisers were firmly convinced of the necessity of a career,he was also highly thought of by the Empress Dowager and thus different and more widely diffused education than that then in vogue.As passed unscathed through the days which saw the degradation of so many long as the mass of the people were ignorant of the reformers'purposes of Kuang Hsu's supporters.Early in August he presented to the Emperor and admission to official life was still the reward of an accumulation of the proposed regulations for Peking University,which the Emperor Confucian lore,the innovators at the capital were in a precarious position. approved,declaring,"The memorialist has apparently combined and har- It may almost be said that their chief aim was the creation of a public monised for the University the most valuable and feasible of the regula- opinion to,support their projects.Kang Yu-wei,after his fling at-state- tions and rules observed in Japanese and European Universities with the craft was over,declared that his failure had been due in good part to the learned suggestions of high officials both in Peking and in the provinces."4 general ignorance of the ends for which the Emperor and he had striven. Dr.W.A.P.Martin of Tungwen College was chosen to serve as the head The reformers made all possible speed to arouse a national spirit in favor of the new institution. of reform,but the three months vouchsafed them proved wholly inade- Upon the change in the school system was based a revision of the quate to the task. content of the civil service examinations.Kang and his followers had The new educational system was outlined in the decree of July 11.At determined on the abolition of the "eight-legged"essay (wen chang), the head was to stand the Imperial University and below it a group of skill in the composition of which had so long been the open sesame to middle schools based on grade schools.Until this plan could be realized, official life.The edict of June 23 effected this change.50 A month later existing schools and colleges were to be used,after some modernizing of the Emperor gave his approval to the proposal of Chang Chih-tung and their curricula.The problem of funds was a stumbling-block in the way Chen Pao-chen,Jung Lu's protege,that hereafter the examinations for of this as of every other innovation in China.The Emperor's edict pre- the degrees of cht jen and chin shih (M.A.and Ph.D.,to give Western equivalents)include essays on (1)the history and government of China, Wen Ching,op.cit.,pp.62-63. (2)"modern practical subjects,"such as scientific problems and the 45 Bland and Backhouse,op.cit,p.189;Reform Decrees,September 17,trans- governments of foreign countries,and (3)the Confucian classics.The lator's note. 46 Beresford,The Break-up of China,p.194.From an account of an interview with Kang Yu-wei,September 30,1898. Reform Decrees,July 11. 4s Reform Decrees,July 29. 4 Ibid.,August 9. 0Ibi记，June23. [38」 [39]