Anderson, Terry and Donald R. Leal. Free Market Environmentalism Westview. Boulder Attilio, Bisio and Sharon G Boots, Energy Technology and the Environment, John Wiley Sons, Inc, New York, 1995 Attilio, Bisio and Sharon G. Boots, The Wiley Encyclopedia of Energy and the Environment, John Wiley Sons, Inc, New York, 1996 Brown, Lester R, Christopher Flavin, and Hilary French, State of the World 1998, Worldwatch Publications, Washington, D. C 1998 Brown, Lester R, Gary Gardner, and Brian Halweil, Beyond Malthus: Nineteen Dimensions of the Population Challenge, Worldwatch Publications, Washington Cahil. Lawrence B. Environmental Audits. 7th ed. Government Institutes Rockville MD. 1996 Cairncross, Francis, Costing the earth, Harvard Business School Press, Boston 1992 onald g, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998 Costanza, Robert, Ed, Ecological Economics, Columbia University Press, New York. 1992 Dooge, J. CL, Ed, An Agenda of Science for Environment and Development into the 2 1st Century, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1992 Dunnette, David A, and Robert J. O'Brien, The Science of Global Change American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C, 1992 Ehrlich, Paul R, and Anne H. Ehrlich, Healing the Planet, Addison-Wesley Reading. MA. 1992 Elsom, Derek, Earth, Macmillan, New York, 1992. Encyclopedia of Environmental Analysis and Remediation, John Wiley Sons Inc. New York. 1998 Hollander, Jack M, Ed, The Energy-Enmvironment Connection, Island Press Washington. D. C.1992 Marriott, Betty Bowers, Emvironmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide McGraw-Hill. New York. 1997 Meyers, Robert A, Ed, Encyclopedia of Emvironmental Pollution and Cleanup, John Wiley sons, Inc, New York, 1999 Mungall, Constance, and Digby J. McLaren, Eds, Planet Under Stress, Oxford niversity Press, New York, 1991 Real, Leslie A, and James H. Brown, Eds, Foundations of ecology, University of Chicago press. Chicago. 1991 C 2000 CRC Press llc
Anderson, Terry L., and Donald R. Leal, Free Market Environmentalism, Westview, Boulder, CO, 1991. Attilio, Bisio and Sharon G. Boots, Energy Technology and the Environment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1995. Attilio, Bisio and Sharon G. Boots, The Wiley Encyclopedia of Energy and the Environment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1996. Brown, Lester R., Christopher Flavin, and Hilary French, State of the World 1998, Worldwatch Publications, Washington, D.C., 1998. Brown, Lester R., Gary Gardner, and Brian Halweil, Beyond Malthus: Nineteen Dimensions of the Population Challenge, Worldwatch Publications, Washington, DC, 1999. Cahil, Lawrence B., Environmental Audits, 7th ed., Government Institutes, Rockville, MD, 1996. Cairncross, Francis, Costing the Earth, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1992. Crosby, Donald G., Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998. Costanza, Robert, Ed., Ecological Economics, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992. Dooge, J. C. I., Ed., An Agenda of Science for Environment and Development into the 21st Century, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1992. Dunnette, David A., and Robert J. O’Brien, The Science of Global Change, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1992. Ehrlich, Paul R., and Anne H. Ehrlich, Healing the Planet, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1992. Elsom, Derek, Earth, Macmillan, New York, 1992. Encyclopedia of Environmental Analysis and Remediation, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1998. Hollander, Jack M., Ed., The Energy-Environment Connection, Island Press, Washington, D.C., 1992. Marriott, Betty Bowers, Environmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997. Meyers, Robert A., Ed., Encyclopedia of Environmental Pollution and Cleanup, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1999. Mungall, Constance, and Digby J. McLaren, Eds., Planet Under Stress, Oxford University Press, New York, 1991. Real, Leslie A., and James H. Brown, Eds., Foundations of Ecology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
Silver, Brian L, The Ascent of Science, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998 Rodes, Barbara K, and Rice Odell, A Dictionary of Environmental quotations, Simon and schuster. New York. NY.1992 Stokes, Kenneth M, Man and the Biosphere, Sharpe, Armonk, NY, 1992 Sullivan. Thomas F P. Ed.. Emvironmental Lam Handbook. 15th ed.. Government Institutes. Rockville MD. 1999 White, Rodney R, North, 例x and the Environmental Crisis. University of Toronto press. Buffalo NY Yen, Teh Fu, Emvironmental Chemistry: Essentials for Engineering Practice, Vol 4A, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Under what circumstances does a contaminant become a pollutant? 2. Examine Figure 1. I and abbreviate each"sphere"with its first two letters of At indicating the direction of its movement with a notation such apota harrow y, An, Bi Iron ore used for steel making, (b) waste heat from coal-fired electricity generation, (c) hay, ( d) cotton,(e)water from the ocean as it enters the hydrologic 3. Explain how Figure 1. 1 illustrates the definition of environmental chemistry given at the beginning of section 1.2 4. Explain how toxicological chemistry differs from environmental biochemistry 5. Distinguish among geosphere, lithosphere, and crust of the Earth. Which science deals with these parts of the environment? 6. Define ecology and relate this science to Figure 1.1 7. Although energy is not destroyed, why is it true that the flow of useful energy through an environmental system is essentially a one-way process? 8. Describe some ways in which use of energy has resulted in many of the environ- mental problems now facing humankind 9. Compare nuclear energy to fossil fuel energy sources and defend or refute the statement,Nuclear energy, with modern, safe, and efficient reactors, is gaining increasing attention as a reliable, environmentally friendly energy source 10. What is shown by the reaction below? 2ICH,O)->CO,(g)+ Ch(g) How is this process related to aerobic respiration? C 2000 CRC Press LlC
Silver, Brian L., The Ascent of Science, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998. Rodes, Barbara K., and Rice Odell, A Dictionary of Environmental Quotations, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, 1992. Stokes, Kenneth M., Man and the Biosphere, Sharpe, Armonk, NY, 1992. Sullivan, Thomas F. P., Ed., Environmental Law Handbook, 15th ed., Government Institutes, Rockville, MD, 1999. White, Rodney R., North, South, and the Environmental Crisis, University of Toronto Press, Buffalo, NY, 1993. Yen, Teh Fu, Environmental Chemistry: Essentials for Engineering Practice, Vol. 4A, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Under what circumstances does a contaminant become a pollutant? 2. Examine Figure 1.1 and abbreviate each “sphere” with its first two letters of At, Hy, An, Bi, Ge. Then place each of the following with the appropriate arrow, indicating the direction of its movement with a notation such as At ® Hy: (a) Iron ore used for steel making, (b) waste heat from coal-fired electricity generation, (c) hay, (d) cotton, (e) water from the ocean as it enters the hydrologic cycle, (f) snow, (g) argon used as an inert gas shield for welding. 3. Explain how Figure 1.1 illustrates the definition of environmental chemistry given at the beginning of Section 1.2. 4. Explain how toxicological chemistry differs from environmental biochemistry. 5. Distinguish among geosphere, lithosphere, and crust of the Earth. Which science deals with these parts of the environment? 6. Define ecology and relate this science to Figure 1.1. 7. Although energy is not destroyed, why is it true that the flow of useful energy through an environmental system is essentially a one-way process? 8. Describe some ways in which use of energy has “resulted in many of the environmental problems now facing humankind.” 9. Compare nuclear energy to fossil fuel energy sources and defend or refute the statement, “Nuclear energy, with modern, safe, and efficient reactors, is gaining increasing attention as a reliable, environmentally friendly energy source.” 10. What is shown by the reaction below? 2{CH2O} ® CO2(g) + CH4(g) How is this process related to aerobic respiration? © 2000 CRC Press LLC
11. Define cycles of matter and explain how the definition given relates to the defini- tion of environmental chemist 12. What are the main features of the carbon cycle? 13. Describe the role of organisms in the nitrogen cycle 14. Describe how the oxygen cycle is closely related to the carbon cycle similar elements such as nitrogen and sulfur?s cycle differ from cycles of other 15. In what important respect does the phosphoru C 2000 CRC Press LLC
11. Define cycles of matter and explain how the definition given relates to the definition of environmental chemistry. 12. What are the main features of the carbon cycle? 13. Describe the role of organisms in the nitrogen cycle. 14. Describe how the oxygen cycle is closely related to the carbon cycle. 15. In what important respect does the phosphorus cycle differ from cycles of other similar elements such as nitrogen and sulfur? © 2000 CRC Press LLC
2 THE ANTHROSPHERE INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 2. 1. THE ANTHROSPHERE The anthrosphere may be defined as that part of the evironment made or modified by humans and used for their activities. Of course, there are some ambigu- ities associated with that definition. Clearly, a factory building used for manufacture is part of the anthrosphere as is an ocean-going ship used to ship goods made in the factory. The ocean on which the ship moves belongs to the hydrosphere, but it is clearly used by humans. a pier constructed on the ocean shore and used to load the ship is part of the anthrosphere, but it is closely associated with the hydrosphere During most of its time on Earth, humankind made little impact on the planet, and its small, widely scattered anthrospheric artifacts-simple huts or tents for dwellings, narrow trails worn across the land for movement. clearings in forests to grow some food-rested lightly on the land with virtually no impact. However, with increasing effect as the industrial revolution developed, and especially during the last century, humans have built structures and modified the other environmental spheres especially the geosphere, such that it is necessary to consider the anthrosphere as a separate area with pronounced, sometimes overwhelming influence on the environment as a whol Components of the Anthrosphere As discussed later in this book, the various spheres of the environment are each divided into several subcategories Imple, the hydrosphere consists of oceans, streams,groundwater, ice in polar icecaps, and other components. The anthrosphere too, consists of a number of different parts. These may be categorized by considering where humans live; how they move, how they make or provide the things or services C 2000 CRC Press llc
2 THE ANTHROSPHERE, INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY __________________________ __________________________ 2.1. THE ANTHROSPHERE The anthrosphere may be defined as that part of the environment made or modified by humans and used for their activities. Of course, there are some ambiguities associated with that definition. Clearly, a factory building used for manufacture is part of the anthrosphere as is an ocean-going ship used to ship goods made in the factory. The ocean on which the ship moves belongs to the hydrosphere, but it is clearly used by humans. A pier constructed on the ocean shore and used to load the ship is part of the anthrosphere, but it is closely associated with the hydrosphere. During most of its time on Earth, humankind made little impact on the planet, and its small, widely scattered anthrospheric artifacts—simple huts or tents for dwellings, narrow trails worn across the land for movement, clearings in forests to grow some food—rested lightly on the land with virtually no impact. However, with increasing effect as the industrial revolution developed, and especially during the last century, humans have built structures and modified the other environmental spheres, especially the geosphere, such that it is necessary to consider the anthrosphere as a separate area with pronounced, sometimes overwhelming influence on the environment as a whole. Components of the Anthrosphere As discussed later in this book, the various spheres of the environment are each divided into several subcategories. For example, the hydrosphere consists of oceans, streams, groundwater, ice in polar icecaps, and other components. The anthrosphere, too, consists of a number of different parts. These may be categorized by considering where humans live; how they move; how they make or provide the things or services © 2000 CRC Press LLC
hey need or want; how they produce food, fiber, and wood; how they obtai distribute, and use energy; how they communicate, how they extract and process nonrenewable minerals; and how they collect, treat, and dispose of wastes. With ese factors in mind, it is possible to divide the anthrosphere into the following Structures used for dwellings Structures used for manufacturing. commerce. education, and other Utilities, including water, fuel, and electricity distribution systems, and waste distribution systems, such as sewers Structures used for transportation, including roads, railroads, airports, and waterways constructed or modified for water transport Structures and other parts of the environment modified for food production, such as fields used for growing crops and water systems used to irrigate the field Machines of various kinds, including automobiles, farm machinery, and Structures and devices used for communicatior h as telephone I Structures such as mines or oil wells. associated with extractive industries From the list given above it is obvious that the anthrosphere is very complex with an enormous potential to affect the environment. Prior to addressing these environmental effects, several categories of the anthrosphere will be discussed in more detail 2.2. TECHNOLOGY AND THE ANTHROSPHERE Since the anthrosphere is the result of technology, it is appropriate to discus technology at this point. Technology refers to the ways in which humans do and make things with materials and energy. In the modern era, technology is to a large extent the product of engineering based on scientific principles. Science deals with the discovery, explanation, and development of theories pertaining to interrelated atural phenomena of energy, matter, time, and space. Based on the fundamental knowledge of science, engineering provides the plans and means to achieve specific practical objectives. Technology uses these plans to carry out the desired objectives Technology has a long history and, indeed, goes back into prehistory to times when humans used primitive tools made from stone, wood, and bone. As humans settled in cities. human and material resources became concentrated and focused such that technology began to develop at an accelerating pace. Technological advances predating the Roman era include the development of metallur beginning with native copper around 4000 B. C, domestication of the horse, C 2000 CRC Press llc
they need or want; how they produce food, fiber, and wood; how they obtain, distribute, and use energy; how they communicate; how they extract and process nonrenewable minerals; and how they collect, treat, and dispose of wastes. With these factors in mind, it is possible to divide the anthrosphere into the following categories: • Structures used for dwellings • Structures used for manufacturing, commerce, education, and other activities • Utilities, including water, fuel, and electricity distribution systems, and waste distribution systems, such as sewers • Structures used for transportation, including roads, railroads, airports, and waterways constructed or modified for water transport • Structures and other parts of the environment modified for food production, such as fields used for growing crops and water systems used to irrigate the fields • Machines of various kinds, including automobiles, farm machinery, and airplanes • Structures and devices used for communications, such as telephone lines or radio transmitter towers • Structures, such as mines or oil wells, associated with extractive industries From the list given above it is obvious that the anthrosphere is very complex with an enormous potential to affect the environment. Prior to addressing these environmental effects, several categories of the anthrosphere will be discussed in more detail. 2.2. TECHNOLOGY AND THE ANTHROSPHERE Since the anthrosphere is the result of technology, it is appropriate to discuss technology at this point. Technology refers to the ways in which humans do and make things with materials and energy. In the modern era, technology is to a large extent the product of engineering based on scientific principles. Science deals with the discovery, explanation, and development of theories pertaining to interrelated natural phenomena of energy, matter, time, and space. Based on the fundamental knowledge of science, engineering provides the plans and means to achieve specific practical objectives. Technology uses these plans to carry out the desired objectives. Technology has a long history and, indeed, goes back into prehistory to times when humans used primitive tools made from stone, wood, and bone. As humans settled in cities, human and material resources became concentrated and focused such that technology began to develop at an accelerating pace. Technological advances predating the Roman era include the development of metallurgy, beginning with native copper around 4000 B.C., domestication of the horse, dis- © 2000 CRC Press LLC