20.4 Physical Methods of Waste Treatment 20.5 Chemical Treatment: An Overview 20.6 Photolytic Reactions 20.7 Thermal Treatment Method 20.8 Biodegradation of Wastes 20.9 Land Treatment and Composting 20.10 Preparation of Wastes for Disposal 20.11 Ultimate Disposal of Wastes 20.12 Leachate and Gas emissions 20.13 n-Situ Treatment CHAPTER 21: ENVIRONMENTAL BIOCHEMISTRY 21.1 Biochemistry 21.2 Biochemistry and the Cell 21.3 Proteins 21.4 Carbohydrates 21.5 Lipids 21.6 Enzymes 21.7 Nucleic Acids 21. 8 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering 21.9 Metabolic Processes 21.10 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds CHAPTER 22: TOXICOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 22 1 Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry 22.2 Dose-Response Relationships 22. 3 Relative Toxicities 22.4 Reversibility and Sensitivity 22.5 Xenobiotic and Endogenous substances 22.6 Toxicological Chemistry 22.7 Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase 22.8 Teratogenesis. Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis. and Effects on the Immune and Reproductive Systems 22.9 Health hazards CHAPTER 23: TOXICOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms 23.3 Toxic Inorganic Compounds 23. 4 Toxicology of Organic Compounds CHAPTER 24: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER 24.1 General Aspects of Environmental Chemical Analysis 24.2 Classical Methods 24.3 Spectrophotometric Methods 24.4 Electrochemical Methods of Analysis 24.5 Chromatography 24.6 Mass Spectrometry C 2001 CRC Press llc
20.4 Physical Methods of Waste Treatment 20.5 Chemical Treatment: An Overview 20.6 Photolytic Reactions 20.7 Thermal Treatment Methods 20.8 Biodegradation of Wastes 20.9 Land Treatment and Composting 20.10 Preparation of Wastes for Disposal 20.11 Ultimate Disposal of Wastes 20.12 Leachate and Gas Emissions 20.13 In-Situ Treatment CHAPTER 21: ENVIRONMENTAL BIOCHEMISTRY 21.1 Biochemistry 21.2 Biochemistry and the Cell 21.3 Proteins 21.4 Carbohydrates 21.5 Lipids 21.6 Enzymes 21.7 Nucleic Acids 21.8 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering 21.9 Metabolic Processes 21.10 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds CHAPTER 22: TOXICOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 22.1 Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry 22.2 Dose-Response Relationships 22.3 Relative Toxicities 22.4 Reversibility and Sensitivity 22.5 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances 22.6 Toxicological Chemistry 22.7 Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase 22.8 Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects on the Immune and Reproductive Systems 22.9 Health Hazards CHAPTER 23: TOXICOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms 23.3 Toxic Inorganic Compounds 23.4 Toxicology of Organic Compounds CHAPTER 24: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER 24.1 General Aspects of Environmental Chemical Analysis 24.2 Classical Methods 24.3 Spectrophotometric Methods 24.4 Electrochemical Methods of Analysis 24.5 Chromatography 24.6 Mass Spectrometry © 2001 CRC Press LLC
24.7 Analysis of Water Samples 24.8 Automated Water Analyses CHAPTER 25: ANALYSIS OF WASTES AND SOLIDS 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Sample Digestions 25.3 Analyte Isolation for Organics Analysis 25.4 Sample Cleanups 25.5 Immunoassay Screening of Wastes 5.6 Determination of Chelating Agents 25.7 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedures CHAPTER 26: AIR AND GAS ANALYSIS 26. 1 Atmospheric Monitoring 26.2 Sampling 26.3 Methods of Analysis 26.4 Determination of Sulfur Dioxide 26.6 Analysis of Oxidants 26.7 Analysis of Carbon Monoxide 26.8 Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics 26.9 Analysis of Particulate Matter 26.10 Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants CHAPTER 27: ANALYSIS OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND XENOBIOTICS 27.2 Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics 27.3 Determination of metals 27.4 Determination of Nonmetals and Inorganic Compounds 27.5 Determination of Parent Organic Compound 27.6 Measurement of phase 1 and phase 2 Reaction Products 27 7 Determination of Adducts 27. 8 The Promise of Immunological Method CHAPTER 28: FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Elements 28.3 Chemical Bonding 28.4 Chemical Reactions and equations 28.5 Solutions CHAPTER 29: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 29. 1 Organic Chemistry 29.2 Hydrocarbons 29.3 Organic Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds 29.4 Synthetic Polyme C 2001 CRC Press llc
24.7 Analysis of Water Samples 24.8 Automated Water Analyses CHAPTER 25: ANALYSIS OF WASTES AND SOLIDS 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Sample Digestions 25.3 Analyte Isolation for Organics Analysis 25.4 Sample Cleanups 25.5 Immunoassay Screening of Wastes 25.6 Determination of Chelating Agents 25.7 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedures CHAPTER 26: AIR AND GAS ANALYSIS 26.1 Atmospheric Monitoring 26.2 Sampling 26.3 Methods of Analysis 26.4 Determination of Sulfur Dioxide 26.5 Nitrogen Oxides 26.6 Analysis of Oxidants 26.7 Analysis of Carbon Monoxide 26.8 Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics 26.9 Analysis of Particulate Matter 26.10 Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants CHAPTER 27: ANALYSIS OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND XENOBIOTICS 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics 27.3 Determination of Metals 27.4 Determination of Nonmetals and Inorganic Compounds 27.5 Determination of Parent Organic Compounds 27.6 Measurement of Phase 1 and Phase 2 Reaction Products 27.7 Determination of Adducts 27.8 The Promise of Immunological Methods CHAPTER 28: FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Elements 28.3 Chemical Bonding 28.4 Chemical Reactions and Equations 28.5 Solutions CHAPTER 29: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 29.1 Organic Chemistry 29.2 Hydrocarbons 29.3 Organic Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds 29.4 Synthetic Polymers © 2001 CRC Press LLC
1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 1. 1. WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? This book is about environmental chemistry. To understand that topic, it is important to have some appreciation of environmental science as a whole Environmental science in its broadest sense is the science of the complex interactions that occur among the terrestrial, atmospheric, aquatic, living, and biolog Dological environments It includes all the disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, ecology, sociology, and government, that affect or describe these interactions. For the purposes of this book, environmental science will be defined as the study of the earth, air, water, and living environments, and the effects of technology thereon. To a significant degree, environmental science has evolved from investigations of the ways by which, and places in which, living organisms carry out their life cycles. This is the discipline of natural history, which in recent imes has evolved into ecology, the study of environmental factors that affect organisms and how organisms interact with these factors and with each other. I For better or for worse. the environment in which all humans must live has been affected irreversibly by technology. Therefore, technology is considered strongly in this book in terms of how it affects the environment and in the ways by which, applied intelligently by those knowledgeable of environmental science, it can serve rather than damage, this Earth upon which all living beings depend for their welfar and existence The environment Air, water, earth, life, and technology are strongly interconnected as shown in Figure 1. 1. Therefore, in a sense this figure summarizes and outlines the theme of e rest of this book C 2000 CRC Press LlC
1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND CHEMISTRY __________________________ __________________________ 1.1. WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? This book is about environmental chemistry. To understand that topic, it is important to have some appreciation of environmental science as a whole. Environmental science in its broadest sense is the science of the complex interactions that occur among the terrestrial, atmospheric, aquatic, living, and anthropological environments. It includes all the disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, ecology, sociology, and government, that affect or describe these interactions. For the purposes of this book, environmental science will be defined as the study of the earth, air, water, and living environments, and the effects of technology thereon. To a significant degree, environmental science has evolved from investigations of the ways by which, and places in which, living organisms carry out their life cycles. This is the discipline of natural history, which in recent times has evolved into ecology, the study of environmental factors that affect organisms and how organisms interact with these factors and with each other.1 For better or for worse, the environment in which all humans must live has been affected irrreversibly by technology. Therefore, technology is considered strongly in this book in terms of how it affects the environment and in the ways by which, applied intelligently by those knowledgeable of environmental science, it can serve, rather than damage, this Earth upon which all living beings depend for their welfare and existence. Figure 1.1. Therefore, in a sense this figure summarizes and outlines the theme of The Environment Air, water, earth, life, and technology are strongly interconnected as shown in the rest of this book. © 2000 CRC Press LLC
Atmosphere Hydrosphere E98 Anthrosphere ergy Geosphere Nutrients, organic matter Figure 1. 1. Illustration of the close relationships among the air, water, and earth environments with each other and with living systems, as well as the tie-in with technology(the anthrosphere) Traditionally, environmental science has been divided among the study of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the geosphere, and the biosphere. The atmosphere is the thin layer of gases that cover Earths surface. In addition to its role as a reservoir of gases, the atmosphere moderates Earths temperature, absorbs energy and damag ing ultraviolet radiation from the sun, transports energy away from equatorial regions, and serves as a pathway for vapor-phase movement of water in the hydro logic cycle. The hydrosphere contains Earths water. Over 97% of Earths water is in oceans, and most of the remaining fresh water is in the form of ice. Therefore only a relatively small percentage of the total water on Earth is actually involved with terrestrial, atmospheric, and biological processes. Exclusive of seawater, the water that circulates through environmental processes and cycles occurs in the atmosphere, underground as groundwater, and as surface water in streams, rivers lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. The geosphere consists of the solid earth, including soil, which supports most plant life. The part of the geosphere that is directly involved with environmental processes through contact with the atmosphere, the C 2000 CRC Press LlC
Figure 1.1. Illustration of the close relationships among the air, water, and earth environments with each other and with living systems, as well as the tie-in with technology (the anthrosphere). Traditionally, environmental science has been divided among the study of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the geosphere, and the biosphere. The atmosphere is the thin layer of gases that cover Earth’s surface. In addition to its role as a reservoir of gases, the atmosphere moderates Earth’s temperature, absorbs energy and damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun, transports energy away from equatorial regions, and serves as a pathway for vapor-phase movement of water in the hydrologic cycle. The hydrosphere contains Earth’s water. Over 97% of Earth’s water is in oceans, and most of the remaining fresh water is in the form of ice. Therefore, only a relatively small percentage of the total water on Earth is actually involved with terrestrial, atmospheric, and biological processes. Exclusive of seawater, the water that circulates through environmental processes and cycles occurs in the atmosphere, underground as groundwater, and as surface water in streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. The geosphere consists of the solid earth, including soil, which supports most plant life. The part of the geosphere that is directly involved with environmental processes through contact with the atmosphere, the © 2000 CRC Press LLC
hydrosphere, and living things is the solid lithosphere. The lithosphere varies from 50 to 100 km in thickness. The most important part of it insofar as interactions with the other spheres of the environment are concerned is its thin outer skin composed largely of lighter silicate-based minerals and called the crust. All living entities on Earth compose the biosphere. Living organisms and the aspects of the environment ertaining directly to them are called biotic, and other portions of the environment are abiotIc To a large extent, the strong interactions among living organisms and the various spheres of the abiotic environment are best described by cycles of matter that involve biological, che emical, and geological processes and phenomena. Such cycles are called biogeochemical cycles, and are discussed in more detail in Section 1.6 and elsewhere in this book 1.2. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOCHEMISTRY Environmental chemistry encompasses many diverse topics. It may involve a study of Freon reactions in the stratosphere or an analysis of PCB deposits in ocean sediments. It also covers the chemistry and biochemistry of volatile and soluble organometallic compounds biosynthesized by anaerobic bacteria. Literally thousands of other examples of environmental chemical phenomena could be given Environmental chemistry may be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in water, soil, air, and living and the effects of technology theree Environmental chemistry is not a new discipline. Excellent work has been done in this field for the greater part of a century. Until about 1970, most of this work was done in academic departments or industrial groups other than those primarily concerned with chemistry. Much of it was performed by people whose basi education was not in chemistry. Thus, when pesticides were synthesized, biologists observed firsthand some of the less desirable consequences of their use. When detergents were formulated, sanitary engineers were startled to see sewage treatment plant aeration tanks vanish under meter-thick blankets of foam, while limnologists wondered why previously normal lakes suddenly became choked with stinking cyanobacteria. Despite these long standing environmental effects, and even more recent and serious problems, such as those from hazardous wastes, relatively few chemists have been exposed to material dealing with environmental chemistry as part of their education Environmental Chemistry and the Environmental Chemist An encouraging trend is that in recent years many chemists have become deeply involved with the investigation of environmental problems. Academic chemistry departments have found that environmental chemistry courses appeal to students and many graduate students are attracted to environmental chemistry research. Hell wanted ads have included significant numbers of openings for environmental chem sts among those of the more traditional chemical subdisciplines. Industries have found that well-trained environmental chemists at least help avoid difficulties with C 2000 CRC Press llc
hydrosphere, and living things is the solid lithosphere. The lithosphere varies from 50 to 100 km in thickness. The most important part of it insofar as interactions with the other spheres of the environment are concerned is its thin outer skin composed largely of lighter silicate-based minerals and called the crust. All living entities on Earth compose the biosphere. Living organisms and the aspects of the environment pertaining directly to them are called biotic, and other portions of the environment are abiotic. To a large extent, the strong interactions among living organisms and the various spheres of the abiotic environment are best described by cycles of matter that involve biological, chemical, and geological processes and phenomena. Such cycles are called biogeochemical cycles, and are discussed in more detail in Section 1.6 and elsewhere in this book. 1.2. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOCHEMISTRY Environmental chemistry encompasses many diverse topics. It may involve a study of Freon reactions in the stratosphere or an analysis of PCB deposits in ocean sediments. It also covers the chemistry and biochemistry of volatile and soluble organometallic compounds biosynthesized by anaerobic bacteria. Literally thousands of other examples of environmental chemical phenomena could be given. Environmental chemistry may be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in water, soil, air, and living environments, and the effects of technology thereon. Environmental chemistry is not a new discipline. Excellent work has been done in this field for the greater part of a century. Until about 1970, most of this work was done in academic departments or industrial groups other than those primarily concerned with chemistry. Much of it was performed by people whose basic education was not in chemistry. Thus, when pesticides were synthesized, biologists observed firsthand some of the less desirable consequences of their use. When detergents were formulated, sanitary engineers were startled to see sewage treatment plant aeration tanks vanish under meter-thick blankets of foam, while limnologists wondered why previously normal lakes suddenly became choked with stinking cyanobacteria. Despite these long standing environmental effects, and even more recent and serious problems, such as those from hazardous wastes, relatively few chemists have been exposed to material dealing with environmental chemistry as part of their education. Environmental Chemistry and the Environmental Chemist An encouraging trend is that in recent years many chemists have become deeply involved with the investigation of environmental problems. Academic chemistry departments have found that environmental chemistry courses appeal to students, and many graduate students are attracted to environmental chemistry research. Helpwanted ads have included significant numbers of openings for environmental chemists among those of the more traditional chemical subdisciplines. Industries have found that well-trained environmental chemists at least help avoid difficulties with © 2000 CRC Press LLC