Page2biology,and engineering.Food chemistry,a major aspectoffood science, deals with the composition and properties offoodand the chemical changes it undergoes during handling, processing, and storage. Food chemistry is intimately related tochemistry,biochemistry,physiological chemistry,botany,zoology,and molecular biology.The food chemist relies heavily onknowledge of the aforementioned sciences to effectively study and control biological substances as sources of human foodKnowledge of the innate properties of biological substances and mastery of the means of manipulating them are commoninterests of both food chemists and biological scientists. The primary interests of biological scientists include reproduction,growth, and changes that biological substances undergo under environmental conditions that are compatible or marginallycompatible with life.To the contrary,food chemists are concerned primarily with biological substances that are dead or dying(postharvest physiology of plants and postmortem physiology of muscle) and changes they undergo when exposed to a verywiderange ofenvironmental conditions.For example, conditions suitablefor sustaining residual life processes are ofconcern tofood chemists during the marketing offresh fruits and vegetables,whereas conditions incompatible with life processes are ofmajor interest when long-term preservation offood is attempted. In addition,food chemists are concerned with the chemicalproperties of disrupted food tissues (flour,fruit and vegetable juices, isolated and modified constituents, and manufacturedfoods), single-cell sources of food (eggs and microorganisms), and one major biological fluid, milk. In summary, food chemistshave much in common with biological scientists, yet they also have interests that are distinctly different and are of the utmostimportancetohumankind.1.2HistoryofFoodChemistryThe origins of food chemistry are obscure, and details of its history have not yet been rigorously studied and recorded. This isnotsurprising,sincefoodchemistrydidnotacquireaclearidentityuntilthetwentiethcenturyand itshistoryisdeeplyentangledwith that of agricultural chemistry for which historical documentation is not considered exhaustive [5,14]. Thus, the followingbriefexcursionintothehistoryoffoodchemistryisincompleteandselective.Nonetheless,availableinformationis sufficienttoindicatewhen,where,andwhycertainkeyevents infood chemistryoccurred,andtorelate someofthese eventstomajorchanges in the wholesomeness of the food supply since the early 1800s.Although the origin of food chemistry, in a sense, extends to antiquity, the most significant discoveries, as we judge them todaybeganinthelate170Os.ThebestaccountsofdevelopmentsduringthisperiodarethoseofFilby[12|andBrowne[5],andthese sources have been relied upon for much of the information presented here.During theperiod of1780-1850 a number offamous chemists made important discoveries, many ofwhich related directly orindirectly to the chemistry of food. The works of Scheele, Lavoisier, de Saussure, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Davy, Berzelius,Thomson, Beaumont, and Liebig contain the origins of modem food chemistry. Some may question whether these scientistswhosemostfamousdiscoveriesbearlittlerelationshiptofood chemistry,deserverecognitionasmajorfigures intheoriginsofmodernfood chemistry.Althoughit isadmittedlydifficulttocategorizeearlyscientistsaschemists,bacteriologists,orfoodchemists, it is relatively easy to determine whether a given scientist made substantial contributions to a given field of science.Fromthefollowingbriefexamples itisclearlyevidentthatmanyofthesescientists studiedfoodsintensivelyandmadediscoveries of such fundamental importance to food chemistry that exclusion of their contributions from any historical account offoodchemistrywouldbeinappropriate.Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786),a Swedish pharmacist, was one ofthegreatest
Pag e 2 biology, and engineering. Food chemistry, a major aspect of food science, deals with the composition and properties of food and the chemical changes it undergoes during handling, processing, and storage. Food chemistry is intimately related to chemistry, biochemistry, physiological chemistry, botany, zoology, and molecular biology. The food chemist relies heavily on knowledge of the aforementioned sciences to effectively study and control biological substances as sources of human food. Knowledge of the innate properties of biological substances and mastery of the means of manipulating them are common interests of both food chemists and biological scientists. The primary interests of biological scientists include reproduction, growth, and changes that biological substances undergo under environmental conditions that are compatible or marginally compatible with life. To the contrary, food chemists are concerned primarily with biological substances that are dead or dying (postharvest physiology of plants and postmortem physiology of muscle) and changes they undergo when exposed to a very wide range of environmental conditions. For example, conditions suitable for sustaining residual life processes are of concern to food chemists during the marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables, whereas conditions incompatible with life processes are of major interest when long-term preservation of food is attempted. In addition, food chemists are concerned with the chemical properties of disrupted food tissues (flour, fruit and vegetable juices, isolated and modified constituents, and manufactured foods), single-cell sources of food (eggs and microorganisms), and one major biological fluid, milk. In summary, food chemists have much in common with biological scientists, yet they also have interests that are distinctly different and are of the utmost importance to humankind. 1.2 History of Food Chemistry The origins of food chemistry are obscure, and details of its history have not yet been rigorously studied and recorded. This is not surprising, since food chemistry did not acquire a clear identity until the twentieth century and its history is deeply entangled with that of agricultural chemistry for which historical documentation is not considered exhaustive [5,14]. Thus, the following brief excursion into the history of food chemistry is incomplete and selective. Nonetheless, available information is sufficient to indicate when, where, and why certain key events in food chemistry occurred, and to relate some of these events to major changes in the wholesomeness of the food supply since the early 1800s. Although the origin of food chemistry, in a sense, extends to antiquity, the most significant discoveries, as we judge them today, began in the late 1700s. The best accounts of developments during this period are those of Filby [12] and Browne [5], and these sources have been relied upon for much of the information presented here. During the period of 1780–1850 a number of famous chemists made important discoveries, many of which related directly or indirectly to the chemistry of food. The works of Scheele, Lavoisier, de Saussure, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Davy, Berzelius, Thomson, Beaumont, and Liebig contain the origins of modern food chemistry. Some may question whether these scientists, whose most famous discoveries bear little relationship to food chemistry, deserve recognition as major figures in the origins of modern food chemistry. Although it is admittedly difficult to categorize early scientists as chemists, bacteriologists, or food chemists, it is relatively easy to determine whether a given scientist made substantial contributions to a given field of science. From the following brief examples it is clearly evident that many of these scientists studied foods intensively and made discoveries of such fundamental importance to food chemistry that exclusion of their contributions from any historical account of food chemistry would be inappropriate. Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), a Swedish pharmacist, was one of the greatest
Page3chemists of all time. In addition to his more famous discoveries of chlorine, glycerol, and oxygen (3 years before Priestly,butunpublished), he isolated and studied the properties of lactose (1780), prepared mucic acid by oxidation of lactic acid (1780)devisedameansofpreservingvinegarbymeansofheat(1782,well inadvanceofAppert's“discovery"),isolatedcitricacidfrom lemon juice (1784) and gooseberries (1785), isolated malic acid from apples (1785), and tested 20 common fruits for thepresence of citric, malic, and tartaric acids (1785).His isolation of various new chemical compounds from plant and animalsubstances is considered the beginning of accurate analytical research in agricultural and food chemistry.The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) was instrumental in the final rejection of the phlogiston theory andin formulating the principles of modern chemistry. With respect to food chemistry, he established the fundamental principles ofcombustionorganicanalysis,hewasthefirsttoshowthattheprocessoffermentationcouldbeexpressedasabalancedequation, he madethe first attempt to determinethe elemental composition ofalcohol (1784),and he presented one of thefirstpapers (1786) on organic acids of various fruits.(Nicolas) Theodore de Saussure (1767-1845), a French chemist, did much to formalize and clarify the principles of agriculturaland food chemistry provided by Lavoisier. He also studied CO2 and O2 changes during plant respiration (1840), studied themineral contents of plants by ashing, and made the first accurate elemental analysis of alcohol (1807)Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) and Louis-Jacques Thenard (1777-1857) devised in 1811 the first method todetermine percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in dry vegetable substances.The English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) in the years 1807 and 1808 isolated the elements K, Na, Ba, Sr, Ca,and Mg. His contributions to agricultural and food chemistry came largely through his books on agricultural chemistry, of whichthe first (1813) was Elements of Agriculture Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture [8]. Hisbooksservedtoorganizeand clarifyknowledgeexistingatthattime.Inthefirsteditionhestated,All thedifferent parts of plants are capable ofbeing decomposed intoafewelements.Their uses asfood,orforthepurposeoftheartsdepend upon compoundarrangements ofthese elements,which arecapable ofbeingproducedeitherfrom theirorganized parts,orfromthe juices theycontain, and the examination ofthe nature ofthese substances is an essential part ofagricultural chemistry.In the fifth edition he stated that plants are usually composed of only seven or eight elements, and that [9] “the most essentialvegetable substances consist ofhydrogen, carbon, and oxygen in different proportion, generally alone, but in some few casescombined with azote [nitrogen]" (p. 121).The works of the Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) and the Scottish chemist Thomas Thomson (1773-1852resulted in the beginnings of organic formulas, “without which organic analysis would be a trackless desert and food analysis anendless task[12]. Berzelius determined the elemental components of about 2000 compounds, thereby verifying the law ofdefinite proportions. He also devised a means of accurately determining the water content of organic substances, a deficiency inthemethod of Gay-Lussac and Thenard.Moreover,Thomson showed that laws governing the composition of inorganicsubstances apply equally well to organic substances, a point of immense importance.In a book entitled Considerations generales sur I' analyse organique et sur ses applications [6], Michel Eugene Chevreul(1786-1889), a French chemist, listed the elements known to exist at that time in organic substances (O, CI, I, N, S, P, C, Si,H, Al, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Mn, Fe) and cited the processes then available for organic analysis: (a) extraction with a neutral solventsuchaswater,alcohol,oraqueousether,(b)slowdistillation,orfractionaldistillation
Pag e 3 chemists of all time. In addition to his more famous discoveries of chlorine, glycerol, and oxygen (3 years before Priestly, but unpublished), he isolated and studied the properties of lactose (1780), prepared mucic acid by oxidation of lactic acid (1780), devised a means of preserving vinegar by means of heat (1782, well in advance of Appert's “discovery”), isolated citric acid from lemon juice (1784) and gooseberries (1785), isolated malic acid from apples (1785), and tested 20 common fruits for the presence of citric, malic, and tartaric acids (1785). His isolation of various new chemical compounds from plant and animal substances is considered the beginning of accurate analytical research in agricultural and food chemistry. The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) was instrumental in the final rejection of the phlogiston theory and in formulating the principles of modern chemistry. With respect to food chemistry, he established the fundamental principles of combustion organic analysis, he was the first to show that the process of fermentation could be expressed as a balanced equation, he made the first attempt to determine the elemental composition of alcohol (1784), and he presented one of the first papers (1786) on organic acids of various fruits. (Nicolas) Théodore de Saussure (1767–1845), a French chemist, did much to formalize and clarify the principles of agricultural and food chemistry provided by Lavoisier. He also studied CO2 and O2 changes during plant respiration (1840), studied the mineral contents of plants by ashing, and made the first accurate elemental analysis of alcohol (1807). Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) and Louis-Jacques Thenard (1777–1857) devised in 1811 the first method to determine percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in dry vegetable substances. The English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy (1778–1829) in the years 1807 and 1808 isolated the elements K, Na, Ba, Sr, Ca, and Mg. His contributions to agricultural and food chemistry came largely through his books on agricultural chemistry, of which the first (1813) was Elements of Agriculture Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture [8]. His books served to organize and clarify knowledge existing at that time. In the first edition he stated, All the different parts of plants are capable of being decomposed into a few elements. Their uses as food, or for the purpose of the arts, depend upon compound arrang ements of these elements, which are capable of being produced either from their org anized parts, or from the juices they contain; and the examination of the nature of these substances is an essential part of ag ricultural chemistry. In the fifth edition he stated that plants are usually composed of only seven or eight elements, and that [9] “the most essential vegetable substances consist of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen in different proportion, generally alone, but in some few cases combined with azote [nitrogen]” (p. 121). The works of the Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) and the Scottish chemist Thomas Thomson (1773–1852) resulted in the beginnings of organic formulas, “without which organic analysis would be a trackless desert and food analysis an endless task” [12]. Berzelius determined the elemental components of about 2000 compounds, thereby verifying the law of definite proportions. He also devised a means of accurately determining the water content of organic substances, a deficiency in the method of Gay-Lussac and Thenard. Moreover, Thomson showed that laws governing the composition of inorganic substances apply equally well to organic substances, a point of immense importance. In a book entitled Considérations générales sur l' analyse organique et sur ses applications [6], Michel Eugene Chevreul (1786–1889), a French chemist, listed the elements known to exist at that time in organic substances (O, Cl, I, N, S, P, C, Si, H, Al, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Mn, Fe) and cited the processes then available for organic analysis: (a) extraction with a neutral solvent, such as water, alcohol, or aqueous ether, (b) slow distillation, or fractional distillation
Page4(c) steam distillation, (d) passing the substance through a tube heated to incandescence, and (e) analysis with oxygen. Chevreulwas a pioneer in the analysis of organic substances, and his classic research on the composition of animal fat led to the discoveryand naming of stearic and oleic acids.Dr.William Beaumont (1785-1853), an American Army surgeon stationed at Fort Mackinac, Mich.,performed classicexperiments on gastric digestion that destroyed the concept existing from the time ofHippocrates that food contained a singlenutritive component.His experiments were performed during the period 1825-1833 on a Canadian, Alexis St.Martin, whosemusket wound afforded direct access to the stomach interior, thereby enabling food to be introduced and subsequentlyexamined for digestive changes [4].Amonghismanynotableaccomplishments,JustusvonLiebig(1803-1873)showedin1837thatacetaldehydeoccursasanintermediate between alcohol and acetic acid during fermentation of vinegar. In 1842 he classified foods as either nitrogenous(vegetable fibrin, albumin, casein, and animal flesh and blood) or nonnitrogenous (fats, carbohydrates, and alcoholic beverages)Although this classification is not correct in several respects, it served to distinguish important differences among various foodsHe also perfected methods for the quantitative analysis oforganic substances,especially by combustion,and he published in1847whatisapparentlythefirstbookonfoodchemistry,ResearchesontheChemistryofFood[18].Includedinthisbookareaccounts ofhisresearch onthewater-solubleconstituents ofmuscle (creatine,creatinine,sarcosine,inosinic acid,lactic acid,etc.).It is interesting that the developments just reviewed paralleled the beginning of serious and widespread adulteration of food, andit is no exaggeration to state that the need to detect impurities in food was a major stimulus for the development of analyticalchemistry in general and analytical food chemistry in particular. Unfortunately, it is also true that advances in chemistrycontributed somewhattotheadulterationoffood,sinceunscrupulouspurveyorsoffoodwereabletoprofitfromtheavailabilityofchemical literature, including formulas for adulterated food, and could replace older, less effective empirical approaches tofoodadulterationwithmoreefficientapproachesbased on scientificprinciples.Thus,thehistoryoffoodchemistryandthehistory of food adulteration are closely interwoven by the threads of several causative relationships, and it is thereforeappropriate to consider the matter of food adulteration from a historical perspective [12]The history of food adulteration in the currently more developed countries of the world falls into three distinct phases. Fromancient times to about 1820 food adulteration was not a serious problem and there was little need for methods of detection. Themost obvious explanationforthis situation was thatfood was procured from small businesses or individuals.and transactionsinvolved a large measure of interpersonal accountability. The second phase began in the early 180Os, when intentional foodadulterationincreasedgreatlyinbothfrequencyandseriousness.Thisdevelopmentcanbeattributedprimarilytoincreasedcentralization of food processing and distribution, with a corresponding decline in interpersonal accountability, and partly to theriseof modern chemistry,as already mentioned.Intentional adulteration offood remained a serious problem until about 1920,which marks theend of phase two and the beginning of phase three.Atthis point regulatory pressures andeffective methods ofdetectionreducedthefrequencyand seriousnessofintentionalfoodadulterationtoacceptablelevels,andthesituationhasgradually improved up to the present time.Some would argue that a fourth phase of food adulteration began about 1950, when foods containing legal chemical additivesbecame increasingly prevalent, when the use of highly processed foods increased to a point where they represented a major partof the diet of persons in most of the industrialized countries, and when contamination of some foods with undesirable by-products of industrialization, such as mercury,lead, and pesticides, became of public and
Pag e 4 (c) steam distillation, (d) passing the substance through a tube heated to incandescence, and (e) analysis with oxygen. Chevreul was a pioneer in the analysis of organic substances, and his classic research on the composition of animal fat led to the discovery and naming of stearic and oleic acids. Dr. William Beaumont (1785–1853), an American Army surgeon stationed at Fort Mackinac, Mich., performed classic experiments on gastric digestion that destroyed the concept existing from the time of Hippocrates that food contained a single nutritive component. His experiments were performed during the period 1825–1833 on a Canadian, Alexis St. Martin, whose musket wound afforded direct access to the stomach interior, thereby enabling food to be introduced and subsequently examined for digestive changes [4]. Among his many notable accomplishments, Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) showed in 1837 that acetaldehyde occurs as an intermediate between alcohol and acetic acid during fermentation of vinegar. In 1842 he classified foods as either nitrogenous (vegetable fibrin, albumin, casein, and animal flesh and blood) or nonnitrogenous (fats, carbohydrates, and alcoholic beverages). Although this classification is not correct in several respects, it served to distinguish important differences among various foods. He also perfected methods for the quantitative analysis of organic substances, especially by combustion, and he published in 1847 what is apparently the first book on food chemistry, Researches on the Chemistry of Food [18]. Included in this book are accounts of his research on the water-soluble constituents of muscle (creatine, creatinine, sarcosine, inosinic acid, lactic acid, etc.). It is interesting that the developments just reviewed paralleled the beginning of serious and widespread adulteration of food, and it is no exaggeration to state that the need to detect impurities in food was a major stimulus for the development of analytical chemistry in general and analytical food chemistry in particular. Unfortunately, it is also true that advances in chemistry contributed somewhat to the adulteration of food, since unscrupulous purveyors of food were able to profit from the availability of chemical literature, including formulas for adulterated food, and could replace older, less effective empirical approaches to food adulteration with more efficient approaches based on scientific principles. Thus, the history of food chemistry and the history of food adulteration are closely interwoven by the threads of several causative relationships, and it is therefore appropriate to consider the matter of food adulteration from a historical perspective [12]. The history of food adulteration in the currently more developed countries of the world falls into three distinct phases. From ancient times to about 1820 food adulteration was not a serious problem and there was little need for methods of detection. The most obvious explanation for this situation was that food was procured from small businesses or individuals, and transactions involved a large measure of interpersonal accountability. The second phase began in the early 1800s, when intentional food adulteration increased greatly in both frequency and seriousness. This development can be attributed primarily to increased centralization of food processing and distribution, with a corresponding decline in interpersonal accountability, and partly to the rise of modern chemistry, as already mentioned. Intentional adulteration of food remained a serious problem until about 1920, which marks the end of phase two and the beginning of phase three. At this point regulatory pressures and effective methods of detection reduced the frequency and seriousness of intentional food adulteration to acceptable levels, and the situation has gradually improved up to the present time. Some would argue that a fourth phase of food adulteration began about 1950, when foods containing legal chemical additives became increasingly prevalent, when the use of highly processed foods increased to a point where they represented a major part of the diet of persons in most of the industrialized countries, and when contamination of some foods with undesirable byproducts of industrialization, such as mercury, lead, and pesticides, became of public and
Pagesregulatory concern. The validity ofthis contention is hotly debated and disagreement persists to this day. Nevertheless, thecourse of action in the next few years seems clear.Public concern over the safety and nutritional adequacy ofthe food supplyhasalreadyledtosomerecentchanges,bothvoluntaryandinvoluntary,inthemannerinwhichfoodsareproduced,handledand processed, and more such actions are inevitable as we learn more about proper handling practices for food and as estimatesofmaximumtolerableintakeofundesirableconstituentsbecomemoreaccurate.The early 180Os was a period of especially intense public concern over the quality and safety of the food supply.This concernor more properly indignation, was aroused in England by Frederick Accum's publication ATreatise on Adulterations of Food[1] and by an anonymous publication entitled Death in the Pot [3]. Accum claimed that "Indeed, it would be difficult to mentiona singlearticleoffoodwhichisnottobemetwith inanadulterated state,andtherearesomesubstanceswhicharescarcelyeverto be procured genuine" (p. 14). He further remarked, “It is not less lamentable that the extensive application of chemistry to theuseful purposes of life, should have been perverted into an auxiliary to this nefarious traffic [adulterationj" (p. 20)Although Filby [12] asserted that Accum's accusations were somewhat overstated, the seriousness of intentional adulteration offood that prevailed in the early 1800s is clearly exemplified by the following not uncommon adulterants cited by both Accum andFilby:Annatto: Adulterants included turmeric, rye, barley, wheat flour, calcium sulfate and carbonate, salt, and Venetian red (ferricoxide, which in turn was sometimes adulterated with red lead and copper).Pepper, black: This important product was commonly adulterated with gravel, leaves, twigs, stalks, pepper dust, linseedmeal, and ground parts of plants other than pepper.Pepper, cayenne. Substances such as vermillion (α-mercury sulfide), ocher (native earthy mixtures of metallic oxides andclay), and turmeric were commonly added to overcome bleaching that resulted from exposure to light.Essential oils: Oil of turpentine, other oils, and alcohol.Vinegar: Sulfuric acidLemon juice: Sulfuric and other acidsCoffee: Roasted grains, occasionally roasted carrots or scorched beans and peas, also, baked horse liver.Tea: Spent, redried tea leaves, and leaves of many other plants.Milk: Watering was the main form of adulteration, also, the addition of chalk, starch, turmeric (color), gums, and soda wascommon. Occasionally encountered were gelatin, dextrin,glucose,preservatives (borax, boric acid, salicylic acid, sodiumsalicylate,potassiumnitrate,sodiumfluoride,andbenzoate),and suchcolorsasannatto,saffron,caramel,andsomesulfonateddyes.Beer:“Black extract,"obtained by boiling the poisonous berries of Cocculus indicus in water and concentrating the fluidwas apparently a common additive.This extract imparted flavor, narcotic properties,additional intoxicatingqualities, andtoxicity to the beverage.Wine: Colorants: alum, husks ofelderberries, Brazil wood, and burnt sugar, among others. Flavors: bitter almonds, tinctureofraisin seeds, sweet-brier, oris root, and others. Aging agents: bitartrate of potash, “"oenathis" ether (heptyl ether), and leadsalts.Preservatives:salicylic acid,benzoicacidfluoborates,andlead salts.Antacids:lime,chalkgypsum,and lead saltsSugar: Sand, dust, lime, pulp, and coloring matters.Butter: Excessive salt and water, potato flour, and curds
Pag e 5 regulatory concern. The validity of this contention is hotly debated and disagreement persists to this day. Nevertheless, the course of action in the next few years seems clear. Public concern over the safety and nutritional adequacy of the food supply has already led to some recent changes, both voluntary and involuntary, in the manner in which foods are produced, handled, and processed, and more such actions are inevitable as we learn more about proper handling practices for food and as estimates of maximum tolerable intake of undesirable constituents become more accurate. The early 1800s was a period of especially intense public concern over the quality and safety of the food supply. This concern, or more properly indignation, was aroused in England by Frederick Accum's publication A Treatise on Adulterations of Food [1] and by an anonymous publication entitled Death in the Pot [3]. Accum claimed that “Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine” (p. 14). He further remarked, “It is not less lamentable that the extensive application of chemistry to the useful purposes of life, should have been perverted into an auxiliary to this nefarious traffic [adulteration]” (p. 20). Although Filby [12] asserted that Accum's accusations were somewhat overstated, the seriousness of intentional adulteration of food that prevailed in the early 1800s is clearly exemplified by the following not uncommon adulterants cited by both Accum and Filby: Annatto: Adulterants included turmeric, rye, barley, wheat flour, calcium sulfate and carbonate, salt, and Venetian red (ferric oxide, which in turn was sometimes adulterated with red lead and copper). Pepper, black: This important product was commonly adulterated with gravel, leaves, twigs, stalks, pepper dust, linseed meal, and ground parts of plants other than pepper. Pepper, cayenne. Substances such as vermillion (a-mercury sulfide), ocher (native earthy mixtures of metallic oxides and clay), and turmeric were commonly added to overcome bleaching that resulted from exposure to light. Essential oils: Oil of turpentine, other oils, and alcohol. Vinegar: Sulfuric acid Lemon juice: Sulfuric and other acids Coffee: Roasted grains, occasionally roasted carrots or scorched beans and peas; also, baked horse liver. Tea: Spent, redried tea leaves, and leaves of many other plants. Milk: Watering was the main form of adulteration; also, the addition of chalk, starch, turmeric (color), gums, and soda was common. Occasionally encountered were gelatin, dextrin, glucose, preservatives (borax, boric acid, salicylic acid, sodium salicylate, potassium nitrate, sodium fluoride, and benzoate), and such colors as annatto, saffron, caramel, and some sulfonated dyes. Beer: “Black extract,” obtained by boiling the poisonous berries of Cocculus indicus in water and concentrating the fluid, was apparently a common additive. This extract imparted flavor, narcotic properties, additional intoxicating qualities, and toxicity to the beverage. Wine: Colorants: alum, husks of elderberries, Brazil wood, and burnt sugar, among others. Flavors: bitter almonds, tincture of raisin seeds, sweet-brier, oris root, and others. Aging agents: bitartrate of potash, “oenathis” ether (heptyl ether), and lead salts. Preservatives: salicylic acid, benzoic acid, fluoborates, and lead salts. Antacids: lime, chalk, gypsum, and lead salts. Sugar: Sand, dust, lime, pulp, and coloring matters. Butter: Excessive salt and water, potato flour, and curds
Page6Chocolate: Starch, ground sea biscuits, tallow, brick dust, ocher, Venetian red (ferric oxide), and potato flour.Bread: Alum, and flour made from products other than wheat.Confectionery products: Colorants containing lead and arsenicOncetheseriousnessoffoodadulterationintheearly18oOswasmadeevidenttothepublic,remedialforcesgraduallyincreased.Thesetooktheformofnewlegislationtomakeadulterationunlawful,andgreatlyexpandedeffortsbychemiststolearn about the native properties of foods, the chemicals commonly used as adulterants, and the means of detecting them. Thusduring the period 1820-1850, chemistry and food chemistry began to assume importance in Europe. This was possible becauseof the work of the scientists already cited, and was stimulated largely by the establishment of chemical research laboratories foryoung students in various universities and by the founding of new journals for chemical research [5]. Since then, advances infood chemistry have continued at an accelerated pace, and some of these advances, along with causative factors, are mentionedbelow.In 1860, the first publicly supported agriculture experiment station was established in Weede, Germany, and W. Hanneberg andF. Stohmann were appointed director and chemist, respectively. Based largely on the work of earlier chemists, they developedan important procedure for the routine determination of major constituents in food. By dividing a given sample into severalportionstheywereabletodeterminemoisturecontent“crudefat,ash,and nitrogenThen,bymultiplyingthenitrogenvalueby6.25, they arrived at its protein content. Sequential digestion with dilute acid and dilute alkali yielded a residue termed “crudefiber." The portion remaining after removal of protein, fat, ash, and crude fiber was termed “nitrogen-free extract,” and this wasbelieved to represent utilizable carbohydrate. Unfortunately, for many years chemists and physiologists wrongfully assumed thatlike values obtained by this procedure represented like nutritive value, regardless of the kind of food [20]In 1871, Jean Baptiste Duman (1800-1884) suggested that a diet consisting of only protein, carbohydrate, and fat wasinadequate to support lifeIn 1862, the Congress of the United States passed the Land-Grant College Act, authored by Justin Smith Morrll. This acthelped establish colleges of agriculture in the United States and provided considerable impetus for the training of agricultural andfood chemists. Also in 1862, the United States Department of Agriculture was established and Isaac Newton was appointed thefirst commissioner.In1863,HarveyWashingtonWileybecamechiefchemistoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,fromwhichofficeheledthecampaign against misbranded and adulterated food, culminating in passage of the first Pure Food and Drug Act in the UnitedStates (1906)In 1887, agriculture experiment stations were established in the United States following enactment of the Hatch Act.Representative William H. Hatch of Missouri, Chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture, was author of the act. As aresult,theworld'slargestnational systemofagricultureexperimentstationscameintoexistence,andthishadagreatimpactonfood research in theUnited States.During the first half of the twentieth century, most of the essential dietary substances were discovered and characterized, namelyvitamins,minerals,fattyacids,andsomeaminoacids.The development and extensive use of chemicals to aid in the growth, manufacture, and marketing offoods was an especiallynoteworthyandcontentiouseventinthemiddle190Os.This historical review, although brief, makes the current food supply seem almost perfect in comparison to that which existed inthe1800s
Pag e 6 Chocolate: Starch, ground sea biscuits, tallow, brick dust, ocher, Venetian red (ferric oxide), and potato flour. Bread: Alum, and flour made from products other than wheat. Confectionery products: Colorants containing lead and arsenic. Once the seriousness of food adulteration in the early 1800s was made evident to the public, remedial forces gradually increased. These took the form of new legislation to make adulteration unlawful, and greatly expanded efforts by chemists to learn about the native properties of foods, the chemicals commonly used as adulterants, and the means of detecting them. Thus, during the period 1820–1850, chemistry and food chemistry began to assume importance in Europe. This was possible because of the work of the scientists already cited, and was stimulated largely by the establishment of chemical research laboratories for young students in various universities and by the founding of new journals for chemical research [5]. Since then, advances in food chemistry have continued at an accelerated pace, and some of these advances, along with causative factors, are mentioned below. In 1860, the first publicly supported agriculture experiment station was established in Weede, Germany, and W. Hanneberg and F. Stohmann were appointed director and chemist, respectively. Based largely on the work of earlier chemists, they developed an important procedure for the routine determination of major constituents in food. By dividing a given sample into several portions they were able to determine moisture content, “crude fat,” ash, and nitrogen. Then, by multiplying the nitrogen value by 6.25, they arrived at its protein content. Sequential digestion with dilute acid and dilute alkali yielded a residue termed “crude fiber.” The portion remaining after removal of protein, fat, ash, and crude fiber was termed “nitrogen-free extract,” and this was believed to represent utilizable carbohydrate. Unfortunately, for many years chemists and physiologists wrongfully assumed that like values obtained by this procedure represented like nutritive value, regardless of the kind of food [20]. In 1871, Jean Baptiste Duman (1800–1884) suggested that a diet consisting of only protein, carbohydrate, and fat was inadequate to support life. In 1862, the Congress of the United States passed the Land-Grant College Act, authored by Justin Smith Morrill. This act helped establish colleges of agriculture in the United States and provided considerable impetus for the training of agricultural and food chemists. Also in 1862, the United States Department of Agriculture was established and Isaac Newton was appointed the first commissioner. In 1863, Harvey Washington Wiley became chief chemist of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, from which office he led the campaign against misbranded and adulterated food, culminating in passage of the first Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States (1906). In 1887, agriculture experiment stations were established in the United States following enactment of the Hatch Act. Representative William H. Hatch of Missouri, Chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture, was author of the act. As a result, the world's largest national system of agriculture experiment stations came into existence, and this had a great impact on food research in the United States. During the first half of the twentieth century, most of the essential dietary substances were discovered and characterized, namely, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, and some amino acids. The development and extensive use of chemicals to aid in the growth, manufacture, and marketing of foods was an especially noteworthy and contentious event in the middle 1900s. This historical review, although brief, makes the current food supply seem almost perfect in comparison to that which existed in the 1800s