CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Brain Cranial Mediastinum Abdominopelvic Abdominal Pelvic Figure 1.16 The principal body cavities.(a)An anterior view and (b)a midsagittal view. 1. 19 What are visceral organs? Visceral organs, or viscera, are those that are located within the anterior body cavity. Viscera of the thoracic cavity include the heart and lungs. Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, small intestine and large intestine, spleen, liver, and gallbladder 1.20 Where are the pleural and pericardial cavities? The thoracic cavity is partitioned into two pleural cavities, one for each lung, and the pericardial cavity, surrounding the heart the area between the two lungs is known as the medlastinum 1. 21 What is the clinical significance of the thoracic organs being in separate compartments? Because each thoracic organ is positioned in its own compartment, trauma is minimized, and the risk of disease spreading from one organ to another is reduced. Although the lungs function together, they also ork independently. Trauma may cause one lung to collapse, but the other will remain functional. Objective J To discuss the types and functions of the various body membranes. Body membranes are composed of thin layers of connective and epithelial tissue. They to organs principal types are mucous membranes and serous membranes 1.22 What are the functions of mucous membranes? Mucous membranes secrete a thick, viscid substance, called mucus, that lubricates and protects the body rgans where it is secreted 1.23 Which of the following organs are lined, at least in part, with mucous membranes:(a) the trachea, (b)the stomach, (c)the uterus, (d)the mouth and nose? The inside walls of all the organs listed are lined with mucous membranes. Mucus in the nasal cavity and trachea traps airborne particles, mucus in the oral cavity prevents desiccation(drying), mucus coats the epithelial lining of the stomach to protect against digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid, and mucus in the uterus protects against the entry of pathogens
1.19 What are visceral organs? Visceral organs, or viscera, are those that are located within the anterior body cavity. Viscera of the thoracic cavity include the heart and lungs. Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, small intestine and large intestine, spleen, liver, and gallbladder. 1.20 Where are the pleural and pericardial cavities? The thoracic cavity is partitioned into two pleural cavities, one for each lung, and the pericardial cavity, surrounding the heart. The area between the two lungs is known as the medlastinum. 1.21 What is the clinical significance of the thoracic organs being in separate compartments? Because each thoracic organ is positioned in its own compartment, trauma is minimized, and the risk of disease spreading from one organ to another is reduced. Although the lungs function together, they also work independently. Trauma may cause one lung to collapse, but the other will remain functional. Objective J To discuss the types and functions of the various body membranes. Body membranes are composed of thin layers of connective and epithelial tissue. They serve to cover, protect, lubricate, separate, or support visceral organs or to line body cavities. The two principal types are mucous membranes and serous membranes. 1.22 What are the functions of mucous membranes? Mucous membranes secrete a thick, viscid substance, called mucus, that lubricates and protects the body organs where it is secreted. 1.23 Which of the following organs are lined, at least in part, with mucous membranes: (a) the trachea, (b) the stomach, (c) the uterus, (d) the mouth and nose? The inside walls of all the organs listed are lined with mucous membranes. Mucus in the nasal cavity and trachea traps airborne particles, mucus in the oral cavity prevents desiccation (drying), mucus coats the epithelial lining of the stomach to protect against digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid, and mucus in the uterus protects against the entry of pathogens. 10 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body Figure 1.16 The principal body cavities. (a) An anterior view and (b) a midsagittal view. Survey
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Mucous membranes are the first line of defense in locations such as the nasal and oral cavities and in the uterine cavity. Being warm, moist, and highly vascular mucous membranes are vulnerable to pathogens. However, the acidic pH of the secreted mucus in these locations effectively kills most microorganisms. Mucous membranes occasionally do become infected, in which case other body immunity responses are called into action. a cold or a sore throat is an infection of mucous membranes, and swelling and congestion are among the first responses to fight the infection 1. 24 Describe the composition and general locations of the serous membranes, and distinguish these mem- branes from mucous membranes Serous membranes line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and cover visceral organs. They are composed of thin sheets of epithelial tissue(simple squamous epithelium)that lubricate, support, and ompartmentalize visceral organs. Serous fluid is the watery lubricant they secrete 1. 25 Give the specific locations of the individual serous membranes See table 1.1 and fig. 1. 17 TABlE 1.1 Serous membranes and Their locations CAVITY SEROUS MEMBRANE LOCATION Thoracic Visceral pleura Adhering to outer surface of lungs Lining thoracic walls and thoracic surface of diaphragm Visceral pericardium Covering outer surface of heart (epicardium) Parietal pericardium Durable covering surrounding heart Abdominopelvic Visceral peritoneum Covering abdominal viscera peritoneum Lining abdominal wall Mesentery Double fold of peritoneum connecting parietal to ceral periton Duodenum Figure 1.17 The serous membranes and their associated visceral organs. (a) An anterior view and(b)a midsagittal view
Mucous membranes are the first line of defense in locations such as the nasal and oral cavities and in the uterine cavity. Being warm, moist, and highly vascular, mucous membranes are vulnerable to pathogens. However, the acidic pH of the secreted mucus in these locations effectively kills most microorganisms. Mucous membranes occasionally do become infected, in which case other body immunity responses are called into action. A cold or a sore throat is an infection of mucous membranes, and swelling and congestion are among the first responses to fight the infection. 1.24 Describe the composition and general locations of the serous membranes, and distinguish these membranes from mucous membranes. Serous membranes line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and cover visceral organs. They are composed of thin sheets of epithelial tissue (simple squamous epithelium) that lubricate, support, and compartmentalize visceral organs. Serous fluid is the watery lubricant they secrete. 1.25 Give the specific locations of the individual serous membranes. See table 1.1 and fig. 1.17. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 11 Figure 1.17 The serous membranes and their associated visceral organs. (a) An anterior view and (b) a midsagittal view. TABLE 1.1 Serous Membranes and Their Locations CAVITY SEROUS MEMBRANE LOCATION Thoracic Visceral pleura Adhering to outer surface of lungs Parietal pleura Lining thoracic walls and thoracic surface of diaphragm Visceral pericardium Covering outer surface of heart (epicardium) Parietal pericardium Durable covering surrounding heart Abdominopelvic Visceral peritoneum Covering abdominal viscera Parietal peritoneum Lining abdominal wall Mesentery Double fold of peritoneum connecting parietal to visceral peritoneum
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Pleurisy is an inflammation of the pleural membranes associated with a lung. The infection generally confined to just one of the pleural cavities. Trauma to a pleural cavity(such as from a crushed rib cage or a bullet or knife wound) may permit air to enter the pleural cavity--a condi tion known as a pneumothorax. Blood in a pleural cavity is known as a hemothorax. a pneumoth- orax causes the lung on the affected side to collapse. The compartmentalization of thoracic organs, however, ensures that one of the lungs will remain functional 1. 26 Define peritoneal cavity and explain what is meant by a retroperitoneal organ. The parietal peritoneum is a thin membrane attached to the inside of the abdominal wall. It is continuous around the intestinal viscera as the visceral peritoneum. The peritoneal cavity is the space between the parietal and visceral portions of the peritoneum. Retroperitoneal organs, such as the kidneys, adrenal glands, and a portion of the pancreas, are positioned behind the parieal peritoneum but are still within the abdominopelvic cavity. Peritonitis is an inflammation of the peritoneal membrane. The infection is confined to the peri toneal cavity. Normally, this cavity is aseptic, but it can become contaminated by trauma, rupture of a visceral organ(e.g, a ruptured appendix), an ectopic pregnancy(abnormal pregnancy site) or postoperative complications. Peritonitis is usually extremely painful and life threatening Treatment usually involves the injection of massive doses of antibiotics and perhaps peritoneal intubation to permit drainage 1.27 State the function of the mesenteries The mesenteries are double-layered membranes that support the abdominopelvic viscera in a pendent fashion so that intestinal peristalsis(rhythmic waves of muscular contraction) will not be impeded. The mesenteries also support the vessels and nerves that serve the viscera Objective K To become familiar with the descriptive and directional terms that are applied to anatomical Descriptive and directional terms are used to communicate the position of structures, surfaces, and regions of the body with respect to anatomical position 1. 28 Define the important descriptive and directional terms and illustrate their usage Some of the more commonly used descriptive and directional terms are listed in table 1.2 TABLE 1. 2 Commonly Used Descriptive and Directional Terms TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE Superior(cranial) Toward the top: toward the head The thorax is superior to the abdomen Inferior(caudal) Away from the head; toward the bottom The legs are inferior to the trunk Toward the front The navel is on the anterior side of the body. Posterior(dorsal) The kidneys are posterior to the intestines. Toward the midline of the body The heart is medial to the lung Lateral Toward the side of the body The ears are lateral to the head Internal(deep) Away from the surface of the bod The brain is internal to the External(superficial) Toward the surface of the body The skin is external to the muscles Toward the main mass of the body The knee is proximal to the foot Away from the main mass of the body The hand is distal to the elbow Related to internal organs The lungs are covered by a thin membrane called the visceral pleura. Parietal Related to the body walls The parietal pleura is the inside lining of the thoracic cavity
Pleurisy is an inflammation of the pleural membranes associated with a lung. The infection is generally confined to just one of the pleural cavities. Trauma to a pleural cavity (such as from a crushed rib cage or a bullet or knife wound) may permit air to enter the pleural cavity—a condition known as a pneumothorax. Blood in a pleural cavity is known as a hemothorax. A pneumothorax causes the lung on the affected side to collapse. The compartmentalization of thoracic organs, however, ensures that one of the lungs will remain functional. 1.26 Define peritoneal cavity and explain what is meant by a retroperitoneal organ. The parietal peritoneum is a thin membrane attached to the inside of the abdominal wall. It is continuous around the intestinal viscera as the visceral peritoneum. The peritoneal cavity is the space between the parietal and visceral portions of the peritoneum. Retroperitoneal organs, such as the kidneys, adrenal glands, and a portion of the pancreas, are positioned behind the parieal peritoneum but are still within the abdominopelvic cavity. Peritonitis is an inflammation of the peritoneal membrane. The infection is confined to the peritoneal cavity. Normally, this cavity is aseptic, but it can become contaminated by trauma, rupture of a visceral organ (e.g., a ruptured appendix), an ectopic pregnancy (abnormal pregnancy site), or postoperative complications. Peritonitis is usually extremely painful and life threatening. Treatment usually involves the injection of massive doses of antibiotics and perhaps peritoneal intubation to permit drainage. 1.27 State the function of the mesenteries. The mesenteries are double-layered membranes that support the abdominopelvic viscera in a pendent fashion so that intestinal peristalsis (rhythmic waves of muscular contraction) will not be impeded. The mesenteries also support the vessels and nerves that serve the viscera. Objective K To become familiar with the descriptive and directional terms that are applied to anatomical structures. Descriptive and directional terms are used to communicate the position of structures, surfaces, and regions of the body with respect to anatomical position. 1.28 Define the important descriptive and directional terms and illustrate their usage. Some of the more commonly used descriptive and directional terms are listed in table 1.2. 12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body Survey TABLE 1.2 Commonly Used Descriptive and Directional Terms TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE Superior (cranial) Toward the top; toward the head The thorax is superior to the abdomen. Inferior (caudal) Away from the head; toward the bottom The legs are inferior to the trunk. Anterior (ventral) Toward the front The navel is on the anterior side of the body. Posterior (dorsal) Toward the back The kidneys are posterior to the intestines. Medial Toward the midline of the body The heart is medial to the lungs. Lateral Toward the side of the body The ears are lateral to the head. Internal (deep) Away from the surface of the body The brain is internal to the cranium. External (superficial) Toward the surface of the body The skin is external to the muscles. Proximal Toward the main mass of the body The knee is proximal to the foot. Distal Away from the main mass of the body The hand is distal to the elbow. Visceral Related to internal organs The lungs are covered by a thin membrane called the visceral pleura. Parietal Related to the body walls The parietal pleura is the inside lining of the thoracic cavity
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Review Exercises Multiple choice 1. Production of secretory materials within cells would be studied as part of the science of (a)histology, (b)cytology, (c) developmental biology, (d)absorption,(e)anatomy 2. A fingernail is a structure belonging to what body system? (a) skeletal, (b)circulatory, (c)integumentary, (d) lymphatic, (e) reticuloendothelial 3. Which two body systems are regulatory? (a)endocrine, (b) nervous, (c)muscular, (d) skeletal, (e) circulatory region,(b)the throat region, (c) the trunk region, (d) the cervical region, (e)the gullet regi e lumbar 4. The region of the body between the head and thorax is most appropriately referred to as(a) the lumbar 5. A person in the anatomical position would be(a) lying face down, (b)lying face up, (c)standing erect ng forward, (d) in a fetal positio 6. In anatomical position, the thumb is(a) lateral, (b)medial, (c) proximal, (d) horizontal, (e)superficial 7. Which is not one of the four principal tissue types? (a) nervous tissue, (b)bone tissue, (c) epithelial 8. Which is not a serous membrane? (a) parietal peritoneum, (b)mesentery, (c)visceral pleura,(d) lining of th,(e) 9. The relationship between structure and function of an organ is best described as(a) a negative feedback system, (b)one in which function is determined by structure, (c) important only during homeostasis of the organ system, (d)nonexistent, except in certain parts of the body 10. Which is not a chordate characteristic?(a)a vertebral column, (b) a notochord, (c) pharyngeal pouches (d) a dorsal hollow nerve cord. 11. The abdominal cavity contains(a) the heart, (b)the lungs, (c)the spleen,(e)the trachea. 12. The ventral body cavity comprises all of the following cavities except(a) the spinal cavity, (b)the pleural cavity,(c)the thoracic cavity, (d) the pelvic cavity, (e) the abdominal cavity 13. The antebrachium is(a) the chest area, (b)the hand, (c)the shoulder region, (d) the armpit, (e) the forearm. 14. Which is positioned retroperitoneally?(a)stomach, (b)kidney, (c)heart. (d) appendix, (e) liver 15. The foot is to the thigh as the hand is to(a) the brachium, (b) the shoulder, (c) the palm, (d) the digits 16. Which term best defines the position of the knee relative to the hip?(a)lateral, (b)medial, (c)distal (d) posterior, (e) proximal 17. The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by (a) the mediastinum, b)the abdominal wall, (c)the sternum, (d)the abdominal septum, (e) the diaphragm 18. Long-distance regulation is accomplished via bloodborne chemicals known as(a) blood cells (b) hormones, (c)ions, (d) motor impulses(e)neurotransmitters 19. Which serious membrane would be cut first as a physician removes an infected appendix?(a) parietal peritoneum, (b)dorsal mesentery, (c)visceral pleura, (d) parietal pleura 0. If an anatomist wanted to show the structural relationship of the trachea, esophagus, neck muscles, and a vertebra within the neck, which body plane would be most appropriate? (a) sagittal plane (b)coronal plane, (c)transverse plane, (d) vertical plane, (e) parasagittal plane 21. Which pairing of directional terms most closely approximates opposites?(a) medial and proximal, (b) superior and posterior, (c) proximal and lateral, (d) superficial and deep 2. A lung is located within(a) the mediastinal, pleural, and thoracic cavities; (b) the thoracic, pleural, and ventral cavities; (c)the peritoneal, pleural, and thoracic cavities; (d) the pleural, pericardial, and thoracic cavities;(e)none of the preceding 3. Which of the following serious membrane combinations lines the diaphragm?(a) visceral pleura-visceral peritoneum, (b)visceral pleura--parietal peritoneum, (c)parietal pleura--parietal peritoneum, (d) parietal pleura-visceral peritoneum
Review Exercises Multiple Choice 1. Production of secretory materials within cells would be studied as part of the science of (a) histology, (b) cytology, (c) developmental biology, (d) absorption, (e) anatomy. 2. A fingernail is a structure belonging to what body system? (a) skeletal, (b) circulatory, (c) integumentary, (d) lymphatic, (e) reticuloendothelial 3. Which two body systems are regulatory? (a) endocrine, (b) nervous, (c) muscular, (d) skeletal, (e) circulatory 4. The region of the body between the head and thorax is most appropriately referred to as (a) the lumbar region, (b) the throat region, (c) the trunk region, (d) the cervical region, (e) the gullet region. 5. A person in the anatomical position would be (a) lying face down, (b) lying face up, (c) standing erect facing forward, (d) in a fetal position. 6. In anatomical position, the thumb is (a) lateral, (b) medial, (c) proximal, (d) horizontal, (e) superficial. 7. Which is not one of the four principal tissue types? (a) nervous tissue, (b) bone tissue, (c) epithelial tissue, (d) muscle tissue, (e) connective tissue 8. Which is not a serous membrane? (a) parietal peritoneum, (b) mesentery, (c) visceral pleura, (d) lining of the mouth, (e) pericardium 9. The relationship between structure and function of an organ is best described as (a) a negative feedback system, (b) one in which function is determined by structure, (c) important only during homeostasis of the organ system, (d) nonexistent, except in certain parts of the body. 10. Which is not a chordate characteristic? (a) a vertebral column, (b) a notochord, (c) pharyngeal pouches, (d) a dorsal hollow nerve cord. 11. The abdominal cavity contains (a) the heart, (b) the lungs, (c) the spleen, (e) the trachea. 12. The ventral body cavity comprises all of the following cavities except (a) the spinal cavity, (b) the pleural cavity, (c) the thoracic cavity, (d) the pelvic cavity, (e) the abdominal cavity. 13. The antebrachium is (a) the chest area, (b) the hand, (c) the shoulder region, (d) the armpit, (e) the forearm. 14. Which is positioned retroperitoneally? (a) stomach, (b) kidney, (c) heart, (d) appendix, (e) liver 15. The foot is to the thigh as the hand is to (a) the brachium, (b) the shoulder, (c) the palm, (d) the digits. 16. Which term best defines the position of the knee relative to the hip? (a) lateral, (b) medial, (c) distal, (d) posterior, (e) proximal 17. The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by (a) the mediastinum, (b) the abdominal wall, (c) the sternum, (d) the abdominal septum, (e) the diaphragm. 18. Long-distance regulation is accomplished via bloodborne chemicals known as (a) blood cells, (b) hormones, (c) ions, (d) motor impulses (e) neurotransmitters. 19. Which serious membrane would be cut first as a physician removes an infected appendix? (a) parietal peritoneum, (b) dorsal mesentery, (c) visceral pleura, (d) parietal pleura 20. If an anatomist wanted to show the structural relationship of the trachea, esophagus, neck muscles, and a vertebra within the neck, which body plane would be most appropriate? (a) sagittal plane, (b) coronal plane, (c) transverse plane, (d) vertical plane, (e) parasagittal plane 21. Which pairing of directional terms most closely approximates opposites? (a) medial and proximal, (b) superior and posterior, (c) proximal and lateral, (d) superficial and deep 22. A lung is located within (a) the mediastinal, pleural, and thoracic cavities; (b) the thoracic, pleural, and ventral cavities; (c) the peritoneal, pleural, and thoracic cavities; (d) the pleural, pericardial, and thoracic cavities; (e) none of the preceding. 23. Which of the following serious membrane combinations lines the diaphragm? (a) visceral pleura—visceral peritoneum, (b) visceral pleura—parietal peritoneum, (c) parietal pleura—parietal peritoneum, (d) parietal pleura—visceral peritoneum CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 13
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body 24. In a negative feedback system, (a) input is always maintained constant(homeostatic),(b) input serves no useful purpose, (c)output is partially put back into the system, (d)output is always maintained constant 25. What is the proper sequence of body cavities or areas traversed as blood flows from the heart to the uterus through the aorta and the uterine artery?(a) thoracic, pericardial, pelvic, abdominal;(b) pericardial mediastinal, abdominal, pelvic; (c) pleural, mediastinal, abdominal, pelvic; (d) pericardial, pleural abdominal, pelvic True or False Histology is the microscopic examination of tissues 2. The function of an organ is predictable from its structure. 3. A group of cells cooperating in a particular function is called a tissue 4. In anatomical position, the subject is standing erect, the feet are together, and the arms are relaxed to the side of the body with the thumbs forwa 5. A sagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves 6. The thumb is lateral to the other digits of the hand and distal to the antebrachium 7. The lungs are kept moist through the secretion of mucus from mucous membranes. 8. Increased body temperature during exercise is an example of a homeostatic feedback mechanism. 9. Mesenteries tightly bind visceral organs to the body wall so that they are protected from excessive movement 10. A 6-inch knife wound lateral to the left nipple of a male patient would puncture the parietal pleura and cause a pneumothorax. 11. All of the visceral organs are contained within the abdominopelvic cavity 12. A computed tomography(CT) scan permits an image to be displayed along a transverse plane 13. The term parietal refers to the body wall, and the term visceral refers to internal body organs. 14. Humans are the only living members of the family Hominidae 15. In the scientific name Homo sapiens, Homo is the genus designation, and sapiens is the species designation Completion 1. Animals within the phylum possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal pouches during some stage of their development. Is our scientic name is an aggregation of similar cells bound by a importing matrIx. 4. The system includes the skin, hair, nails, and oil and weat gla 5. The nervous system and the system control and integrate other systems of the body is the dynamic maintenance of a nearly stable internal environment in the body so that metabolism can occur. 7 feedback mechanisms provide input to controlling organs in the process of maintaining homeostasis. 8. All terms of direction that describe the relationship of one body part to another are made in reference to a standard POS plane divides the body into equal right and left portions
24. In a negative feedback system, (a) input is always maintained constant (homeostatic), (b) input serves no useful purpose, (c) output is partially put back into the system, (d) output is always maintained constant. 25. What is the proper sequence of body cavities or areas traversed as blood flows from the heart to the uterus through the aorta and the uterine artery? (a) thoracic, pericardial, pelvic, abdominal; (b) pericardial, mediastinal, abdominal, pelvic; (c) pleural, mediastinal, abdominal, pelvic; (d) pericardial, pleural, abdominal, pelvic. True or False _____ 1. Histology is the microscopic examination of tissues. _____ 2. The function of an organ is predictable from its structure. _____ 3. A group of cells cooperating in a particular function is called a tissue. _____ 4. In anatomical position, the subject is standing erect, the feet are together, and the arms are relaxed to the side of the body with the thumbs forward. _____ 5. A sagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves. _____ 6. The thumb is lateral to the other digits of the hand and distal to the antebrachium. _____ 7. The lungs are kept moist through the secretion of mucus from mucous membranes. _____ 8. Increased body temperature during exercise is an example of a homeostatic feedback mechanism. _____ 9. Mesenteries tightly bind visceral organs to the body wall so that they are protected from excessive movement. _____ 10. A 6-inch knife wound lateral to the left nipple of a male patient would puncture the parietal pleura and cause a pneumothorax. _____ 11. All of the visceral organs are contained within the abdominopelvic cavity. _____ 12. A computed tomography (CT) scan permits an image to be displayed along a transverse plane. _____ 13. The term parietal refers to the body wall, and the term visceral refers to internal body organs. _____ 14. Humans are the only living members of the family Hominidae. _____ 15. In the scientific name Homo sapiens, Homo is the genus designation, and sapiens is the species designation. Completion 1. Animals within the phylum ___________________________________ possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal pouches during some stage of their development. 2. ___________________________________ is our scientic name. 3. A(n) ___________________________________ is an aggregation of similar cells bound by a supporting matrix. 4. The ___________________________________ system includes the skin, hair, nails, and oil and sweat glands. 5. The nervous system and the ___________________________________ system control and integrate other systems of the body. 6. ___________________________________ is the dynamic maintenance of a nearly stable internal environment in the body so that metabolism can occur. 7. ___________________________________ feedback mechanisms provide input to controlling organs in the process of maintaining homeostasis. 8. All terms of direction that describe the relationship of one body part to another are made in reference to a standard ___________________________________ position. 9. The ___________________________________ plane divides the body into equal right and left portions. 14 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body