CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Common carotid DEFINITION The body organs concerned with DEFINITION The heart and the vessels arry blood movement of respiratory gases(O, and CO, )to or blood constituents(lymph) through the body from the pulmonary blood (the blood within the lungs) FUNCTIONS Transports respiratory gases, nutrients FUNCTIONS Supplies oxygen to the blood and wastes, and hormones; protects against disease and fluid eliminates carbon dioxide; also helps to regulate loss; helps regulate body temperature and acid-base acid-base balance Figure 1.8 Respiratory system Figure 1. 9 Circulatory system DEFINITION The organs that operate to remove wastes FUNCTIONS Removes various wastes from the blood regulates the chemical composition, volume, and electrolyte balance of the blood; helps maintain the acid-base balance of the body. Figure 1.10 Urinary system
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 5 DEFINITION The body organs concerned with movement of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) to and from the pulmonary blood (the blood within the lungs). FUNCTIONS Supplies oxygen to the blood and eliminates carbon dioxide; also helps to regulate acid–base balance. Figure 1.8 Respiratory system. DEFINITION The organs that operate to remove wastes from the blood and to eliminate urine from the body. FUNCTIONS Removes various wastes from the blood; regulates the chemical composition, volume, and electrolyte balance of the blood; helps maintain the acid–base balance of the body. Figure 1.10 Urinary system. DEFINITION The heart and the vessels that carry blood or blood constituents (lymph) through the body. FUNCTIONS Transports respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones; protects against disease and fluid loss; helps regulate body temperature and acid–base balance. Figure 1.9 Circulatory system
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body 食 Uterine tube Seminal vesicle DEFINITION The body organs that produce, store, and transport reproductive cells(gametes, or sperm and or FUNCTIONS Reproduce the organism, produce sex hormones. Figure 1.11 Male and female reproductive systems. objective D To list the body systems and to describe the general functions of each. 1.10 Which body systems function in support and movement? The muscular and skeletal systems are frequently referred to as the musculoskeletal system because of their combined functional role in body support and locomotion. Both systems, along with the movable (synovial) joints, are studied extensively in kinesiology(the mechanics of body motion). The integumen- ry system also provides some support, and its flexibility permits movement. 1.11 Which body systems function in integration and coordination? The endocrine system and nervous system maintain consistency of body functioning, the former by secret- ing hormones(chemical substances)into the bloodstream and the latter by producing nerve impulses (electrochemical signals) carried via neurons( 1. 12 Which body systems are involved with processing and transporting body substances? Nutrients, oxygen, and various wastes are processed and transported by the digestive, respiratory, circu- latory, lymphatic, and urinary systems. The lymphatic system, which is generally considered part of the circulatory system, is composed of lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph nodes, the spleen, and the thy mus. It transports lymph from tissues to the bloodstream, defends the body against infections, and aids in the absorption of fats Diseases or functional problems of the circulatory system are of major clinical importance because of the potential for disruption of blood flow to a vital organ. Arteriosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries, is a generalized degenerative vascular disorder that results in the loss of elasticity and thickening of the arteries. Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis in which plaque material called atheroma forms on the inside lining of vessels. A thrombus is a clot within a vessel. An anet expansion or bulging of an artery, whereas a coarctation is a constriction of a segment of a vessel
Objective D To list the body systems and to describe the general functions of each. 1.10 Which body systems function in support and movement? The muscular and skeletal systems are frequently referred to as the musculoskeletal system because of their combined functional role in body support and locomotion. Both systems, along with the movable (synovial) joints, are studied extensively in kinesiology (the mechanics of body motion). The integumentary system also provides some support, and its flexibility permits movement. 1.11 Which body systems function in integration and coordination? The endocrine system and nervous system maintain consistency of body functioning, the former by secreting hormones (chemical substances) into the bloodstream and the latter by producing nerve impulses (electrochemical signals) carried via neurons (nerve cells). 1.12 Which body systems are involved with processing and transporting body substances? Nutrients, oxygen, and various wastes are processed and transported by the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, lymphatic, and urinary systems. The lymphatic system, which is generally considered part of the circulatory system, is composed of lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph nodes, the spleen, and the thymus. It transports lymph from tissues to the bloodstream, defends the body against infections, and aids in the absorption of fats. Diseases or functional problems of the circulatory system are of major clinical importance because of the potential for disruption of blood flow to a vital organ. Arteriosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries, is a generalized degenerative vascular disorder that results in the loss of elasticity and thickening of the arteries. Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis in which plaque material called atheroma forms on the inside lining of vessels. A thrombus is a clot within a vessel. An aneurysm is an expansion or bulging of an artery, whereas a coarctation is a constriction of a segment of a vessel. 6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body DEFINITION The body organs that produce, store, and transport reproductive cells (gametes, or sperm and ova). FUNCTIONS Reproduce the organism, produce sex hormones. Figure 1.11 Male and female reproductive systems
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Objective E To explain what is meant by homeostasis ly stable ey body so that cellular metabolic functions can proceed at maximum efficiency. Homeostasis is maintained by effectors(generally muscles or glands), which are regulated by sensory informa- on from the internal environment 1. 13 What is negative feedback, and how is it used to help maintain homeostasis? Negative feedback is an important mechanism of homeostasis and is essential for virtually all body sys- tems. If a factor within the internal environment deviates too far from a normal set point, the system responsible for monitoring that factor initiates a counter change that returns the factor to its normal state (see fig. 1. 12). 1. 14 What is the relationship between homeostasis and pathophysiology? They are opposed in meaning in the sense that health reflects homeostasis, whereas abnormal function (i.e pathophysiology)marks a deviation from homeostasis. Pathophysiology is the basis for diagnosing dis- ease and instituting treatment intended to restore normal function Fight or flight ress=increased blood pressure Controlled condition Baroreceptors ↑ Blood pressure Nerves sensitive to pressure in blood vessels Return to homeostasis. blood pressure drops to Control center Vasmotor area erve Heart rate ↓ Blood pressure Figure 1.12 Homeostasis of blood pressure Feedback mechanisms in the form of input (stimulus),a monitoring center, and output(response)maintain dynamic constancy ctive F To describe the anatomical position sfvey all terms of direction that describe the relationship of one body part to another are made in ret the feet are parallel and flat on the floor, the eyes are directed forward, and the at the sides of the body with the palms of the hands turned forward and the fingers pointing downward
Objective E To explain what is meant by homeostasis. Homeostasis is the process by which a nearly stable internal environment is maintained in the body so that cellular metabolic functions can proceed at maximum efficiency. Homeostasis is maintained by effectors (generally muscles or glands), which are regulated by sensory information from the internal environment. 1.13 What is negative feedback, and how is it used to help maintain homeostasis? Negative feedback is an important mechanism of homeostasis and is essential for virtually all body systems. If a factor within the internal environment deviates too far from a normal set point, the system responsible for monitoring that factor initiates a counter change that returns the factor to its normal state (see fig. 1.12). 1.14 What is the relationship between homeostasis and pathophysiology? They are opposed in meaning in the sense that health reflects homeostasis, whereas abnormal function (i.e., pathophysiology) marks a deviation from homeostasis. Pathophysiology is the basis for diagnosing disease and instituting treatment intended to restore normal function. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 7 Fight or flight response-due to stress=increased blood pressure Blood pressure Return to homeostasis; blood pressure drops to normal Blood pressure Nerve output Nerve input Control center Vasmotor area Baroreceptors Nerves sensitive to pressure in blood vessels Heart rate Cardiac output Response Controlled condition Figure 1.12 Homeostasis of blood pressure. Feedback mechanisms in the form of input (stimulus), a monitoring center, and output (response) maintain dynamic constancy. Survey Objective F To describe the anatomical position. All terms of direction that describe the relationship of one body part to another are made in reference to a standard anatomical position (fig. 1.13). In the anatomical position, the body is erect, the feet are parallel and flat on the floor, the eyes are directed forward, and the arms are at the sides of the body with the palms of the hands turned forward and the fingers pointing downward. Survey
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body 1.15 Why are the palms given an orientation that seems unnatural? During early embryonic development, the palms are supine(facing forward or upward). Later, an axial rota- tion of each forearm puts the palms in a prone position(facing backward or downward). Thus, the anatom- ical position orients the upper extremities as in early development Objective G To identify the planes of reference used to locate and describe structures within the body A set of three planes (imaginary flat surfaces) passing through the body is frequently used to ey depict structural arrangement. The three planes are termed the midsagittal, coronal, and trans verse p Coronal plane Figure 1.13 For descriptive purposes, the Figure 1.14 Planes of reference through the body. anatomical position provides a standard reference framework for the body 1.16 Distinguish between the principal body planes Three cardinal planes are use to divide and describe the anatomy of the body. The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left portions, the coronal(frontal) plane divides the body into anterior and pos terior portions, and the transverse(horizontal) plane divides the body into superior and inferior por tions. The sagittal plane that divides the body into right and left halves is known as the midsagittal median) plane(see fig. 1. 14) 1. 17 With reference to the planes of the body, discuss the advantage of computed tomography (CT or CAt scans and magnetic resonance images(MRIs)over conventional x-rays Conventional radiographs or x-rays are of limited clinical value because they are taken on a vertical plane thus, images of various structures are often superimposed. One major advantage of CT scans and MRis is that they can display images along transverse or sagittal planes. These images are similar to those that could otherwise be obtained only in actual sections through the body
1.15 Why are the palms given an orientation that seems unnatural? During early embryonic development, the palms are supine (facing forward or upward). Later, an axial rotation of each forearm puts the palms in a prone position (facing backward or downward). Thus, the anatomical position orients the upper extremities as in early development. Objective G To identify the planes of reference used to locate and describe structures within the body. A set of three planes (imaginary flat surfaces) passing through the body is frequently used to depict structural arrangement. The three planes are termed the midsagittal, coronal, and transverse planes. 8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body Survey Figure 1.13 For descriptive purposes, the anatomical position provides a standard reference framework for the body. Figure 1.14 Planes of reference through the body. 1.16 Distinguish between the principal body planes. Three cardinal planes are use to divide and describe the anatomy of the body. The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left portions, the coronal (frontal) plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions, and the transverse (horizontal) plane divides the body into superior and inferior portions. The sagittal plane that divides the body into right and left halves is known as the midsagittal (median) plane (see fig. 1.14). 1.17 With reference to the planes of the body, discuss the advantage of computed tomography (CT or CAT) scans and magnetic resonance images (MRIs) over conventional x-rays. Conventional radiographs or x-rays are of limited clinical value because they are taken on a vertical plane; thus, images of various structures are often superimposed. One major advantage of CT scans and MRIs is that they can display images along transverse or sagittal planes. These images are similar to those that could otherwise be obtained only in actual sections through the body
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Objective H To identify and locate the principal body regions The principal body regions are the head, neck, trunk, extremity(two), and lower extremity rvey(two). The trunk(torso) is frequently divided into the 1. 18 State the regions that contain the brachium, cubital fossa, popliteal fossa, and axilla. Specific structures or clinically important areas within the principal regions have anatomical names ee fig. 1. 15). Learning the specific regional terminology provides a foundation for learning the names of underlying structures later on. Cervical Antenor thorax Deltoid (shoulder) Breast Axillary region Cubital fossa Elbow Antebrachium Abdomen Buttock Palmar surface of the hand Lower Popliteal fossa Ankle Plantar surtace Figure 1.15 The principal body regions.(a)An anterior view and(b)a posterior view. ctIve I To identify and to locate the principal body cavities and the organs within them. y时 ated membranes, As shown in fig. 1. 16. the posterior (dorsal) cavity includes the cra nd vertebral cavities(or vertebral canal)and contains the brain and spinal cord. The anterior (ventral) cavity includes the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities and contains visceral organs. The abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity are frequently referred to collectively as the bdominopelvic cavity Body cavities serve to segregate organs and systems by function. The major por- tion of the nervous system occupies the posterior cavity, the principal organs of the respiratory and circu latory systems are in the thoracic cavity, the primary organs of digestion are in the abdominal cavity, and the reproductive organs are in the pelvic cavity
Objective H To identify and locate the principal body regions. The principal body regions are the head, neck, trunk, upper extremity (two), and lower extremity (two). The trunk (torso) is frequently divided into the thorax and abdomen. 1.18 State the regions that contain the brachium, cubital fossa, popliteal fossa, and axilla. Specific structures or clinically important areas within the principal regions have anatomical names (see fig. 1.15). Learning the specific regional terminology provides a foundation for learning the names of underlying structures later on. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 9 Survey Figure 1.15 The principal body regions. (a) An anterior view and (b) a posterior view. Objective I To identify and to locate the principal body cavities and the organs within them. Body cavities are confined spaces in which organs are protected, separated, and supported by associated membranes. As shown in fig. 1.16, the posterior (dorsal) cavity includes the cranial and vertebral cavities (or vertebral canal) and contains the brain and spinal cord. The anterior (ventral) cavity includes the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities and contains visceral organs. The abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity are frequently referred to collectively as the abdominopelvic cavity. Body cavities serve to segregate organs and systems by function. The major portion of the nervous system occupies the posterior cavity, the principal organs of the respiratory and circulatory systems are in the thoracic cavity, the primary organs of digestion are in the abdominal cavity, and the reproductive organs are in the pelvic cavity. Survey