Contents CHAPTER I Introduction to the Human Body CHAPTER 2 Cellular Chemistry CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure and function CHAPTER 4 Tissues CHAPTER 5 Integumentary System CHAPTER 6 Skeletal System CHAPTER 7 Muscle Tissue and mode of contraction 108 CHAPTER 8 Muscular System 121 CHAPTER9 Nervous Tissue 148 CHAPTER 10 Central Nervous System 162 CHAPTER Il Peripheral and Autonomic Nervous Systems CHAPTER 12 Sensory Organs 200 CHAPTER 13 Endocrine System 218 CHAPTER 14 Cardiovascular System: blood 238 CHAPTER 15 Cardiovascular System: The heart 251 CHAPTER 16 Cardiovascular System: Vessels and Blood circulation 269 CHAPTER 17 Lymphatic System and Body Immunity 283 CHAPTER 18 Respiratory System 298 CHAPTER 19 Digestive System 315 CHAPTER 20 Metabolism, Nutrition, and Temperature Regulation CHAPTER 21 Urinary System CHAPTER 22 Water and Electrolyte balance 367 CHAPTER 23 Reproductive System 375 Index
ix Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 1 CHAPTER 2 Cellular Chemistry 19 CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure and Function 34 CHAPTER 4 Tissues 47 CHAPTER 5 Integumentary System 62 CHAPTER 6 Skeletal System 77 CHAPTER 7 Muscle Tissue and Mode of Contraction 108 CHAPTER 8 Muscular System 121 CHAPTER 9 Nervous Tissue 148 CHAPTER 10 Central Nervous System 162 CHAPTER 11 Peripheral and Autonomic Nervous Systems 182 CHAPTER 12 Sensory Organs 200 CHAPTER 13 Endocrine System 218 CHAPTER 14 Cardiovascular System: Blood 238 CHAPTER 15 Cardiovascular System:The Heart 251 CHAPTER 16 Cardiovascular System:Vessels and Blood Circulation 269 CHAPTER 17 Lymphatic System and Body Immunity 283 CHAPTER 18 Respiratory System 298 CHAPTER 19 Digestive System 315 CHAPTER 20 Metabolism, Nutrition, and Temperature Regulation 337 CHAPTER 21 Urinary System 351 CHAPTER 22 Water and Electrolyte Balance 367 CHAPTER 23 Reproductive System 375 Index 399
CHAPTER I Introduction to the Human bodi Objective A To describe anatomy and physiology as scientific disciplines and to explain how they are related. rvey Anatomy and physiology are subdivisions of the science of biology, which is the study of living organisms, both plant and anim Iman anatomy has to do with body structure and the rela tionships between body structures. Human physiology is concerned with the functions of the body parts. In general, function is determined by structure. 1.1 What are the subspecialties of human anatomy These include gross anatomy, the study of structures observed with the unaided eye: microscopic anatomy the study of structures observed with the aid of a microscope(cytology is the study of cells and their organelles, and histology is the study of tissues that make up organs); developmental anatomy, the study of structural changes from conception to birth; and pathological anatomy(pathology), the study of struc tural changes caused by disease. 1. 2 What are the subspecialties of human physiology? These include cellular physiology, the study of the interactions of cell parts and the specific functions of as an organism develops; and pathological physiology, the study of the functional changes that(occur the organelles and the cell in general; developmental physiology, the study of functional changes that occur organs age or become diseased Objective B To describe the basic characteristics of living organisms and to list the physical requirements Certain characteristics distinguish living things from nonliving things. These characteristics include rey metabolism(ability to build and break down complex molecules),responsiveness(detection and reaction to changes), movement(motion of the whole organism or portions of the organism) growth(increase in physical structure), differentiation(development from a generalized structure to a more specialized one), and reproduction(ability to produce offspring) 1.3 To demonstrate that humans exhibit the characteristics of life We breathe, eat and digest food, excrete body wastes, locomote, and reproduce our own kind, as do other animals Being composed of organic materials, we decompose in death as other animals( chiefly microor ganisms)consume our flesh. The processes by which our bodies produce, store, and utilize energy are similar to those used by all living organisms. The same genetic code that regulates our development is found throughout nature. The fundamental patterns of development observed in many animals are also seen in the formation of the human embryo
CHAPTER 1 1 Introduction to the Human Body Objective A To describe anatomy and physiology as scientific disciplines and to explain how they are related. Anatomy and physiology are subdivisions of the science of biology, which is the study of living organisms, both plant and animal. Human anatomy has to do with body structure and the relationships between body structures. Human physiology is concerned with the functions of the body parts. In general, function is determined by structure. 1.1 What are the subspecialties of human anatomy? These include gross anatomy, the study of structures observed with the unaided eye: microscopic anatomy, the study of structures observed with the aid of a microscope (cytology is the study of cells and their organelles, and histology is the study of tissues that make up organs); developmental anatomy, the study of structural changes from conception to birth; and pathological anatomy (pathology), the study of structural changes caused by disease. 1.2 What are the subspecialties of human physiology? These include cellular physiology, the study of the interactions of cell parts and the specific functions of the organelles and the cell in general; developmental physiology, the study of functional changes that occur as an organism develops; and pathological physiology, the study of the functional changes that occur as organs age or become diseased. Objective B To describe the basic characteristics of living organisms and to list the physical requirements for life. Certain characteristics distinguish living things from nonliving things. These characteristics include metabolism (ability to build and break down complex molecules), responsiveness (detection and reaction to changes), movement (motion of the whole organism or portions of the organism), growth (increase in physical structure), differentiation (development from a generalized structure to a more specialized one), and reproduction (ability to produce offspring). 1.3 To demonstrate that humans exhibit the characteristics of life. We breathe, eat and digest food, excrete body wastes, locomote, and reproduce our own kind, as do other animals. Being composed of organic materials, we decompose in death as other animals (chiefly microorganisms) consume our flesh. The processes by which our bodies produce, store, and utilize energy are similar to those used by all living organisms. The same genetic code that regulates our development is found throughout nature. The fundamental patterns of development observed in many animals are also seen in the formation of the human embryo. Survey Survey
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body 1.4 What are the basic physical requirements for the survival of an organism? Water, for a variety of metabolic processes; food, to supply energy, raw materials for building new living matter, and chemicals necessary for vital reactions; oxygen, to release energy from food materials; heat to promote chemical reactions; and pressure, to allow breathing Objective To describe the levels of organization of the human The chemical and cellular levels are respectively the basic structural and functional levels. Each level of body organization(fig. 1. 1)represents an association of units from the preceding level Although the cells in the adult body number in the trillions, there are only a few hundred specific kinds cal CellularTissue System Stomach Atom ystem Molecu! Figure 1.1 Levels of body organization. The chemical, cellular, and tissue levels are microscopic, whereas the organ, system, and organismic levels are macroscopic 1.5 How are similar cells bound together? Similar cells are uniformly spaced and bound together as tissue by nonliving matrix, which the cells secrete Matrix varies in composition from one tissue to another and may take the form of a liquid, semi- solid, or solid. Blood tissue, for example, has a liquid matrix, whereas bone cells are bound by a solid matrix. Not all similar cells, however, have a binding matrix; secretory cells, for instance, are solitary amid a tissue of cells of another kind 1.6 Define the term tissue and explain why the study of tissues is important A tissue is an aggregation of similar cells bound by supporting matrix that performs a specific function Histology is the microscopic science concerned with the study of tissues. Pathology is the medical science concerned with the study of diseased tissues. Tissues are described in chapter 4 1.7 List the four principal types of tissues and describe the functions of each. Epithelial tissue(epithelium)covers body and organ surfaces, lines body cavities and lumina(hollow portions of body tubes), and forms various glands. Epithelial tissue is involved with protection, absorp tion, excretion, and secretion Connective tissue binds, supports, and protects body parts Muscle tissue contracts to produce movement of body parts and permit locomotion. Nervous tissue initiates and transmits nerve impulses that coordinate body activities
2 1.4 What are the basic physical requirements for the survival of an organism? Water, for a variety of metabolic processes; food, to supply energy, raw materials for building new living matter, and chemicals necessary for vital reactions; oxygen, to release energy from food materials; heat, to promote chemical reactions; and pressure, to allow breathing. Objective C To describe the levels of organization of the human body. The chemical and cellular levels are respectively the basic structural and functional levels. Each level of body organization (fig. 1.1) represents an association of units from the preceding level. Although the cells in the adult body number in the trillions, there are only a few hundred specific kinds. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body Survey Figure 1.1 Levels of body organization. The chemical, cellular, and tissue levels are microscopic, whereas the organ, system, and organismic levels are macroscopic. 1.5 How are similar cells bound together? Similar cells are uniformly spaced and bound together as tissue by nonliving matrix, which the cells secrete. Matrix varies in composition from one tissue to another and may take the form of a liquid, semisolid, or solid. Blood tissue, for example, has a liquid matrix, whereas bone cells are bound by a solid matrix. Not all similar cells, however, have a binding matrix; secretory cells, for instance, are solitary amid a tissue of cells of another kind. 1.6 Define the term tissue and explain why the study of tissues is important. A tissue is an aggregation of similar cells bound by supporting matrix that performs a specific function. Histology is the microscopic science concerned with the study of tissues. Pathology is the medical science concerned with the study of diseased tissues. Tissues are described in chapter 4. 1.7 List the four principal types of tissues and describe the functions of each. Epithelial tissue (epithelium) covers body and organ surfaces, lines body cavities and lumina (hollow portions of body tubes), and forms various glands. Epithelial tissue is involved with protection, absorption, excretion, and secretion. Connective tissue binds, supports, and protects body parts. Muscle tissue contracts to produce movement of body parts and permit locomotion. Nervous tissue initiates and transmits nerve impulses that coordinate body activities
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body 1. 8 Use an example to define the term organ and describe the function of that organ. A bone, such as the femur, is an organ because it is composed of several tissue types that are integrated to perform a particular function. The components of the femur include bone tissue, nervous tissue, vascu- lar(blood)tissue, and cartilaginous tissue(at a joint). Not only does the femur, as part of the skeletal sys tem, help to maintain body support, it also serves the muscular system by providing a place of attachment for muscles, and the circulatory system by producing blood cells in the bone marrow Vital body organs are those that are essential for critical body functions. Examples re the heart in pumping blood, the liver in processing foods and breaking down worn blood cells, the kidneys in filtering blood, the lungs in exchanging respiratory gases, and the brain in controlling and correlating body functions. The reproductive organs are not vital body organs, nor are the organs within the appendages. Death of a person occurs when one or more of the vital body organs fails in its function. 1.9 Define the term system as it applies to body organization. A system is an organization of two or more organs and associated structures working as a unit to perform a common function or set of functions; for example, the flow of blood through the body in the case of the circulatory system. Some organs serve more than one body system. The pancreas serves the digestive sys- tem in production and secretion of digestive chemicals(pancreatic juice)and the endocrine system in the production of hormones(chemical messengers, insulin, and glucagon). The basic structure and function of each of the body systems is presented in figs. 1. 2 through fig. 1.11 With the exception of the reproductive system, all of the organs that make up the body sys- tems are formed within the 6-week embryonic period (from the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week)of prenatal development. Not only are the vital body organs and systems formed during this time, but many of them become functional. For example, 25 days after conception the heart is pumping blood through the circulatory system. The organs of the reproductive system form between 10 and 12 weeks after conception, but they do not mature nd become functional until a person goes through puberty at about age 12 or 13 个黑 Pelvic girdle Lower extremity DEFINITION The integument(skin)and structures DEFINITION Bones, cartilage, and ligaments derived from it(hair, nails, and oil sweat gland (which steady the bones at the joints ). FUNCTIONS Protects the body, regulates body FUNCTIONS Provides body support and protection, temperature, eliminates wastes, and receives certain permits movement and leverage, produces blood cells Figure 1.2 Integumentary system Figure 1.3 Skeletal system
1.8 Use an example to define the term organ and describe the function of that organ. A bone, such as the femur, is an organ because it is composed of several tissue types that are integrated to perform a particular function. The components of the femur include bone tissue, nervous tissue, vascular (blood) tissue, and cartilaginous tissue (at a joint). Not only does the femur, as part of the skeletal system, help to maintain body support, it also serves the muscular system by providing a place of attachment for muscles, and the circulatory system by producing blood cells in the bone marrow. Vital body organs are those that are essential for critical body functions. Examples are the heart in pumping blood, the liver in processing foods and breaking down worn blood cells, the kidneys in filtering blood, the lungs in exchanging respiratory gases, and the brain in controlling and correlating body functions. The reproductive organs are not vital body organs, nor are the organs within the appendages. Death of a person occurs when one or more of the vital body organs fails in its function. 1.9 Define the term system as it applies to body organization. A system is an organization of two or more organs and associated structures working as a unit to perform a common function or set of functions; for example, the flow of blood through the body in the case of the circulatory system. Some organs serve more than one body system. The pancreas serves the digestive system in production and secretion of digestive chemicals (pancreatic juice) and the endocrine system in the production of hormones (chemical messengers, insulin, and glucagon). The basic structure and function of each of the body systems is presented in figs. 1.2 through fig. 1.11. With the exception of the reproductive system, all of the organs that make up the body systems are formed within the 6-week embryonic period (from the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week) of prenatal development. Not only are the vital body organs and systems formed during this time, but many of them become functional. For example, 25 days after conception the heart is pumping blood through the circulatory system. The organs of the reproductive system form between 10 and 12 weeks after conception, but they do not mature and become functional until a person goes through puberty at about age 12 or 13. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body 3 DEFINITION The integument (skin) and structures derived from it (hair, nails, and oil sweat glands). FUNCTIONS Protects the body, regulates body temperature, eliminates wastes, and receives certain stimuli (tactile, temperature, and pain). Figure 1.2 Integumentary system. DEFINITION Bones, cartilage, and ligaments (which steady the bones at the joints). FUNCTIONS Provides body support and protection, permits movement and leverage, produces blood cells (hematopoiesis), and stores minerals. Figure 1.3 Skeletal system
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human body Spinal cord Pectoralis Sartorius anterior DEFINITION Skeletal muscles of the body and their DEFINITION Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensor tendinous attachments organs such as the eye and the ear. FUNCTIONS Effects body movements, maintains FUNCTIONS Detects and responds to changes in posture, and produces body heat internal and external environments, enables reasoning Figure 1. 4 Muscular system and memory, and regulates body activities. Figure 1.5 Nervous system Pituitary gland ral cavity Salivary glands Adrenal gland Pancreas Gallbladder Duodenum Small intestine Large intestine DEFINITION The hormone-producing gland DEFINTION The body organs that render ingested FUNCTIONS Controls and integrates body functions foods absorbable via hormones secreted into the bloodstream FUNCTIONS Mechanically and chemically breaks Figure 1.6 Endocrine system down foods for cellular use and eliminates undigested Figure 1.7 Digestive syste
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the Human Body DEFINITION Skeletal muscles of the body and their tendinous attachments. FUNCTIONS Effects body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Figure 1.4 Muscular system. DEFINITION Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs such as the eye and the ear. FUNCTIONS Detects and responds to changes in internal and external environments, enables reasoning and memory, and regulates body activities. Figure 1.5 Nervous system. DEFINITION The hormone-producing glands. FUNCTIONS Controls and integrates body functions via hormones secreted into the bloodstream. Figure 1.6 Endocrine system. DEFINITION The body organs that render ingested foods absorbable. FUNCTIONS Mechanically and chemically breaks down foods for cellular use and eliminates undigested wastes. Figure 1.7 Digestive system