from the poorest urban households are of the population receive less than two they receive less than six years of educa- likely to have fewer years of school- years of schooling,compared with three tion,compared with almost nine years for ing not only than children from wealthier to four years for their male counterparts poor girls in rural areas.But the gender urban households but also than their and about nine years for the richest boys gap is reversed in Venezuela,where the rural counterparts. in urban and rural settings.In Pakistan, poorest boys in urban areas receive the the difference in educational attain- least education-less than three years Some disparities transcend location. ment between the poorest boys and girls of schooling,compared to four and a Girls growing up in poor households are is about three years in rural areas and half years for the poorest girls in urban at a great disadvantage regardless of about one year in urban areas. settings and about six and a half years for whether they live in urban or rural areas. the poorest boys and girls in rural areas. In Benin,girls in urban and rural areas The gender gap is more pronounced for who come from the poorest 20 per cent poor girls in urban Tajikistan.On average, Tajikistan Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 14 12 12 urban richest 20% female male ural richest 20% urban richest 20% male rural richest 20% female urban Tajikistan 10 rural rural poorest 20% +Tajikistan rural Venezuela Venezuela(Bolivarian urban female (Bolivarian Republic of) male Republic of) 8 8 urban poorest 20% rural poorest 20% male -female 61 Pakistan .female Pakistan Benin Benin -female urban poorest 20% 4 -male Education poverty Education poverty 2 2 Extreme education poverty Extreme education poverty 0 Children in an increasingly urban world
Children in an increasingly urban world Children in an increasingly urban world 7 from the poorest urban households are likely to have fewer years of schooling not only than children from wealthier urban households but also than their rural counterparts. Some disparities transcend location. Girls growing up in poor households are at a great disadvantage regardless of whether they live in urban or rural areas. In Benin, girls in urban and rural areas who come from the poorest 20 per cent of the population receive less than two years of schooling, compared with three to four years for their male counterparts and about nine years for the richest boys in urban and rural settings. In Pakistan, the difference in educational attainment between the poorest boys and girls is about three years in rural areas and about one year in urban areas. The gender gap is more pronounced for poor girls in urban Tajikistan. On average, they receive less than six years of education, compared with almost nine years for poor girls in rural areas. But the gender gap is reversed in Venezuela, where the poorest boys in urban areas receive the least education – less than three years of schooling, compared to four and a half years for the poorest girls in urban settings and about six and a half years for the poorest boys and girls in rural areas. Figure 1.3. Educational attainment can be most unequal in urban areas Average years of schooling among population aged 17–22, by location, wealth and gender 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Average years of schooling Tajikistan Pakistan female male male male female female male female Extreme education poverty Education poverty Benin urban rural urban richest 20% rural richest 20% rural poorest 20% urban poorest 20% Tajikistan Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Extreme education poverty Education poverty Average years of schooling Benin Tajikistan urban rural female male female male male female female male Pakistan urban richest 20% urban poorest 20% rural richest 20% rural poorest 20% Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
Children juggle to make money on the streets of Salvador,capital of the eastern state of Bahia,Brazil. Meeting the challenges development programmes.In practice,and particu- of an urban future larly given the misperception that services are within Children and adolescents are,of course,among the most reach of all urban residents,lesser investment has often vulnerable members of any community and will dispro- been devoted to those living in slums and informal portionately suffer the negative effects of poverty and urban settlements. inequality.Yet insufficient attention has been given to children living in urban poverty.The situation is urgent, For this to change,a focus on equity is needed-one in and international instruments such as the Convention which priority is given to the most disadvantaged chil- on the Rights of the Child and commitments such as dren,wherever they live. the MDGs can help provide a framework for action. The first requirement is to improve understanding The fast pace of urbanization,particularly in Africa and of the scale and nature of urban poverty and exclu- Asia,reflects a rapidly changing world.Development sion affecting children.This will entail not only sound practitioners realize that standard programming statistical work-a hallmark of which must be greater approaches,which focus on extending services to more disaggregation of urban data-but also solid research readily accessible communities,do not always reach and evaluation of interventions intended to advance people whose needs are greatest.Disaggregated data the rights of children to survival,health,development, show that many are being left behind. sanitation,education and protection in urban areas. Cities are not homogeneous.Within them,and partic- Second,development solutions must identify and ularly within the rapidly growing cities of low-and remove the barriers to inclusion that prevent marginal- middle-income countries,reside millions of children ized children and families from using services,expose who face similar,and sometimes worse,exclusion and them to violence and exploitation,and bar them from deprivation than children living in rural areas. taking part in decision-making.Among other neces- sary actions,births must be registered,legal status In principle,the deprivations confronting children conferred and housing tenure made secure. in urban areas are a priority for human rights-based THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CHILDREN 2012
8 THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2012 Meeting the challenges of an urban future Children and adolescents are, of course, among the most vulnerable members of any community and will disproportionately suffer the negative effects of poverty and inequality. Yet insufficient attention has been given to children living in urban poverty. The situation is urgent, and international instruments such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child and commitments such as the MDGs can help provide a framework for action. The fast pace of urbanization, particularly in Africa and Asia, reflects a rapidly changing world. Development practitioners realize that standard programming approaches, which focus on extending services to more readily accessible communities, do not always reach people whose needs are greatest. Disaggregated data show that many are being left behind. Cities are not homogeneous. Within them, and particularly within the rapidly growing cities of low- and middle-income countries, reside millions of children who face similar, and sometimes worse, exclusion and deprivation than children living in rural areas. In principle, the deprivations confronting children in urban areas are a priority for human rights-based development programmes. In practice, and particularly given the misperception that services are within reach of all urban residents, lesser investment has often been devoted to those living in slums and informal urban settlements. For this to change, a focus on equity is needed – one in which priority is given to the most disadvantaged children, wherever they live. The first requirement is to improve understanding of the scale and nature of urban poverty and exclusion affecting children. This will entail not only sound statistical work – a hallmark of which must be greater disaggregation of urban data – but also solid research and evaluation of interventions intended to advance the rights of children to survival, health, development, sanitation, education and protection in urban areas. Second, development solutions must identify and remove the barriers to inclusion that prevent marginalized children and families from using services, expose them to violence and exploitation, and bar them from taking part in decision-making. Among other necessary actions, births must be registered, legal status conferred and housing tenure made secure. © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1335/Claudio Versiani Children juggle to make money on the streets of Salvador, capital of the eastern state of Bahia, Brazil
Third,a sharp focus on the particular needs and priorities of children must be maintained in urban plan- ning,infrastructure development,service delivery and broader efforts to reduce poverty and disparity.The international Child-Friendly Cities Initiative provides an example of the type of consideration that must be given children in every facet of urban governance. Fourth,policy and practice must promote partner- ship between the urban poor and government at all its levels.Urban initiatives that foster such participation- and in particular those that involve children and young people-report better results not only for children but also for their communities. Children put their sprawling slum on the map-literally.The data they have gathered about Rishi Aurobindo Colony,Kolkata,India,will be uploaded to Google Earth. Finally,everyone must work together to achieve results for children.International,national,municipal and community actors will need to pool resources and Clearly,children's rights cannot be fulfilled and protected energies in support of the rights of marginalized and unless governments,donors and international organi- impoverished children growing up in urban environ- zations look behind the broad averages of development ments.Narrowing the gaps to honour international statistics and address the urban poverty and inequality commitments to all children will require additional that characterize the lives of so many children. efforts not only in rural areas but also within cities. Figure 1.4.Urban populations are growing fastest in Asia and Africa World urban population 1950,2010,2050(projected) 1% ☐Africa Asia Europe 1% Latin America 6% and the Caribbean North America 10% 20% Pacific 8% 12% 14% 9% 1%5% 15% 15% 50% 54% 10% 31% 38% 1950 2010 2050(projected) 0.7 billion 3.5 billion 6.3 billion Source:UNDESA,Population Division Children in an increasingly urban world
Children in an increasingly urban world 9 Third, a sharp focus on the particular needs and priorities of children must be maintained in urban planning, infrastructure development, service delivery and broader efforts to reduce poverty and disparity. The international Child-Friendly Cities Initiative provides an example of the type of consideration that must be given children in every facet of urban governance. Fourth, policy and practice must promote partnership between the urban poor and government at all its levels. Urban initiatives that foster such participation – and in particular those that involve children and young people – report better results not only for children but also for their communities. Finally, everyone must work together to achieve results for children. International, national, municipal and community actors will need to pool resources and energies in support of the rights of marginalized and impoverished children growing up in urban environments. Narrowing the gaps to honour international commitments to all children will require additional efforts not only in rural areas but also within cities. Clearly, children’s rights cannot be fulfilled and protected unless governments, donors and international organizations look behind the broad averages of development statistics and address the urban poverty and inequality that characterize the lives of so many children. Children put their sprawling slum on the map – literally. The data they have gathered about Rishi Aurobindo Colony, Kolkata, India, will be uploaded to Google Earth. © UNICEF/INDA2011-00105/Graham Crouch Figure 1.4. Urban populations are growing fastest in Asia and Africa World urban population 1950, 2010, 2050 (projected) Source: UNDESA, Population Division. 2050 (projected) 6.3 billion 20% 54% 9% 10% 6% 1% 2010 3.5 billion 50% 14% 15% 8% 12% 1% 1950 0.7 billion 1% 5% 31% 38% 10% 15% Africa Asia Europe Latin America and the Caribbean North America Pacific
URBAN (AREA) containing the city proper,suburbs and continuously The definition of 'urban'varies from country to country,and, settled commuter areas or adjoining territory inhabited at with periodic reclassification,can also vary within one coun- urban levels of residential density. try over time,making direct comparisons difficult.An urban area can be defined by one or more of the following:admin- Large urban agglomerations often include several adminis- istrative criteria or political boundaries(e.g.,area within the tratively distinct but functionally linked cities.For example jurisdiction of a municipality or town committee),a threshold the urban agglomeration of Tokyo includes the cities of population size(where the minimum for an urban settle- Chiba,Kawasaki,Yokohama and others. ment is typically in the region of 2,000 people,although this varies globally between 200 and 50,000),population density, METROPOLITAN AREA/REGION economic function(e.g.,where a significant majority of the A formal local government area comprising the urban population is not primarily engaged in agriculture,or where area as a whole and its primary commuter areas,typically there is surplus employment)or the presence of urban char- formed around a city with a large concentration of people acteristics (e.g.,paved streets,electric lighting,sewerage) (i.e.,a population of at least 100,000). In 2010,3.5 billion people lived in areas classified as urban. In addition to the city proper,a metropolitan area includes URBAN GROWTH both the surrounding territory with urban levels of residen- The(relative or absolute)increase in the number of people tial density and some additional lower-density areas that who live in towns and cities.The pace of urban population are adjacent to and linked to the city (e.g.,through frequent growth depends on the natural increase of the urban popu- transport,road linkages or commuting facilities).Examples of lation and the population gained by urban areas through metropolitan areas include Greater London and Metro Manila. both net rural-urban migration and the reclassification of rural settlements into cities and towns. URBAN SPRAWL Also 'horizontal spreading'or'dispersed urbanization'.The URBANIZATION uncontrolled and disproportionate expansion of an urban The proportion of a country that is urban. area into the surrounding countryside,forming low-density poorly planned patterns of development.Common in both RATE OF URBANIZATION high-income and low-income countries,urban sprawl is The increase in the proportion of urban population over characterized by a scattered population living in separate time,calculated as the rate of growth of the urban popu- residential areas,with long blocks and poor access,often lation minus that of the total population.Positive rates of overdependent on motorized transport and missing well- urbanization result when the urban population grows at a defined hubs of commercial activity. faster rate than the total population. PERI-URBAN AREA CITY PROPER An area between consolidated urban and rural regions. The population living within the administrative boundaries of a city,e.g.,Washington,D.C. MEGACITY An urban agglomeration with a population of 10 million Because city boundaries do not regularly adapt to accom- or more. modate population increases,the concepts of urban agglomeration and metropolitan area are often used to In 2009,21 urban agglomerations qualified as megacities, improve the comparability of measurements of city popula- accounting for 9.4 per cent of the world's urban popula- tions across countries and over time. tion.In 1975,New York,Tokyo and Mexico City were the only megacities.Today,11 megacities are found in Asia,4 in Latin URBAN AGGLOMERATION America and 2 each in Africa,Europe and North America. The population of a built-up or densely populated area Eleven of these megacities are capitals of their countries. 10 THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CHILDREN 2012
10 THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2012 DEFINITIONS Urban (area) The definition of ‘urban’ varies from country to country, and, with periodic reclassification, can also vary within one country over time, making direct comparisons difficult. An urban area can be defined by one or more of the following: administrative criteria or political boundaries (e.g., area within the jurisdiction of a municipality or town committee), a threshold population size (where the minimum for an urban settlement is typically in the region of 2,000 people, although this varies globally between 200 and 50,000), population density, economic function (e.g., where a significant majority of the population is not primarily engaged in agriculture, or where there is surplus employment) or the presence of urban characteristics (e.g., paved streets, electric lighting, sewerage). In 2010, 3.5 billion people lived in areas classified as urban. Urban growth The (relative or absolute) increase in the number of people who live in towns and cities. The pace of urban population growth depends on the natural increase of the urban population and the population gained by urban areas through both net rural-urban migration and the reclassification of rural settlements into cities and towns. Urbanization The proportion of a country that is urban. Rate of urbanization The increase in the proportion of urban population over time, calculated as the rate of growth of the urban population minus that of the total population. Positive rates of urbanization result when the urban population grows at a faster rate than the total population. City proper The population living within the administrative boundaries of a city, e.g., Washington, D.C. Because city boundaries do not regularly adapt to accommodate population increases, the concepts of urban agglomeration and metropolitan area are often used to improve the comparability of measurements of city populations across countries and over time. Urban agglomeration The population of a built-up or densely populated area containing the city proper, suburbs and continuously settled commuter areas or adjoining territory inhabited at urban levels of residential density. Large urban agglomerations often include several administratively distinct but functionally linked cities. For example, the urban agglomeration of Tokyo includes the cities of Chiba, Kawasaki, Yokohama and others. Metropolitan area/region A formal local government area comprising the urban area as a whole and its primary commuter areas, typically formed around a city with a large concentration of people (i.e., a population of at least 100,000). In addition to the city proper, a metropolitan area includes both the surrounding territory with urban levels of residential density and some additional lower-density areas that are adjacent to and linked to the city (e.g., through frequent transport, road linkages or commuting facilities). Examples of metropolitan areas include Greater London and Metro Manila. Urban sprawl Also ‘horizontal spreading’ or ‘dispersed urbanization’. The uncontrolled and disproportionate expansion of an urban area into the surrounding countryside, forming low-density, poorly planned patterns of development. Common in both high-income and low-income countries, urban sprawl is characterized by a scattered population living in separate residential areas, with long blocks and poor access, often overdependent on motorized transport and missing welldefined hubs of commercial activity. Peri-urban area An area between consolidated urban and rural regions. Megacity An urban agglomeration with a population of 10 million or more. In 2009, 21 urban agglomerations qualified as megacities, accounting for 9.4 per cent of the world’s urban population. In 1975, New York, Tokyo and Mexico City were the only megacities. Today, 11 megacities are found in Asia, 4 in Latin America and 2 each in Africa, Europe and North America. Eleven of these megacities are capitals of their countries
spark business and change the nature and function of Megacities,2009(population in millions) individual towns and cities,promoting regional economic 1 Tokyo,Japan (36.5) 12 Los Angeles-Long Beach- growth but also often reinforcing urban primacy and 2 Delhi,,India(21.7） Santa Ana, unbalanced regional development. 3 Sao Paulo,Brazil (20.0) United States(12.7) 4 Mumbai,India (19.7) 13 Beijing,China(12.2) Examples include the industrial corridor developing 5 Mexico City,Mexico(19.3)14 Rio de Janeiro,Brazil (11.8) between Mumbai and Delhi in India;the manufacturing 6 New York-Newark, 15 Manila,Philippines(11.4) and service industry corridor running from Kuala Lumpur, United States(19.3) 16 Osaka-Kobe,Japan (11.3) Malaysia,to the port city of Klang;and the regional 7 Shanghai,China(16.3) 17 Cairo,Egypt(10.9) economic axis forming the greater Ibadan-Lagos-Accra 8 Kolkata,India (15.3) 18 Moscow,Russian urban corridor in West Africa. 9 Dhaka,Bangladesh(14.3) Federation(10.5) 10 Buenos Aires, 19 Paris,France(10.4) CITY-REGION Argentina(13.0) 20 Istanbul,Turkey (10.4) An urban development on a massive scale:a major city 11 Karachi,Pakistan(12.8) 21 Lagos,Nigeria(10.2) that expands beyond administrative boundaries to engulf Sources:UNDESA,Population Division;UN-Habitat small cities,towns and semi-urban and rural hinterlands, sometimes expanding sufficiently to merge with other cities,forming large conurbations that eventually become METACITY city-regions. A major conurbation-a megacity of more than 20 million people. For example,the Cape Town city-region in South Africa extends up to 100 kilometres,including the distances As cities grow and merge,new urban configurations are that commuters travel every day.The extended Bangkok formed.These include megaregions,urban corridors and region in Thailand is expected to expand another 200 kilo- city-regions. metres from its centre by 2020,growing far beyond its current population of over 17 million. MEGAREGION A rapidly growing urban cluster surrounded by low- Figure 1.5.Half of the world's urban population density hinterland,formed as a result of expansion, lives in cities of fewer than 500,000 inhabitants growth and geographical convergence of more than one World urban population distribution,by city size,2009 metropolitan area and other agglomerations.Common in North America and Europe,megaregions are now expanding in other parts of the world and are charac- 10 million terized by rapidly growing cities,great concentrations 9% 5to10 million of people (including skilled workers),large markets and 7% significant economic innovation and potential Fewer than Examples include the Hong Kong-Shenzhen-Guangzhou 1 to 5 million 500,000 megaregion(120 million people)in China and the Tokyo- 22% 52% Nagoya-Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe megaregion(predicted to reach 60 million by 2015)in Japan. 500,000to 1 million URBAN CORRIDOR 10% A linear'ribbon'system of urban organization:cities of various sizes linked through transportation and economic axes,often running between major cities.Urban corridors Source:Calculations based on UNDESA,World Urbanization Prospects: The 2009 revision. Children in an increasingly urban world 11
Children in an increasingly urban world 11 Metacity A major conurbation – a megacity of more than 20 million people. As cities grow and merge, new urban configurations are formed. These include megaregions, urban corridors and city-regions. Megaregion A rapidly growing urban cluster surrounded by lowdensity hinterland, formed as a result of expansion, growth and geographical convergence of more than one metropolitan area and other agglomerations. Common in North America and Europe, megaregions are now expanding in other parts of the world and are characterized by rapidly growing cities, great concentrations of people (including skilled workers), large markets and significant economic innovation and potential. Examples include the Hong Kong-Shenzhen-Guangzhou megaregion (120 million people) in China and the TokyoNagoya-Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe megaregion (predicted to reach 60 million by 2015) in Japan. Urban corridor A linear ‘ribbon’ system of urban organization: cities of various sizes linked through transportation and economic axes, often running between major cities. Urban corridors spark business and change the nature and function of individual towns and cities, promoting regional economic growth but also often reinforcing urban primacy and unbalanced regional development. Examples include the industrial corridor developing between Mumbai and Delhi in India; the manufacturing and service industry corridor running from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to the port city of Klang; and the regional economic axis forming the greater Ibadan-Lagos-Accra urban corridor in West Africa. City-region An urban development on a massive scale: a major city that expands beyond administrative boundaries to engulf small cities, towns and semi-urban and rural hinterlands, sometimes expanding sufficiently to merge with other cities, forming large conurbations that eventually become city-regions. For example, the Cape Town city-region in South Africa extends up to 100 kilometres, including the distances that commuters travel every day. The extended Bangkok region in Thailand is expected to expand another 200 kilometres from its centre by 2020, growing far beyond its current population of over 17 million. Megacities, 2009 (population in millions) 1 Tokyo, Japan (36.5) 2 Delhi, India (21.7) 3 Sao Paulo, Brazil (20.0) 4 Mumbai, India (19.7) 5 Mexico City, Mexico (19.3) 6 New York-Newark, United States (19.3) 7 Shanghai, China (16.3) 8 Kolkata, India (15.3) 9 Dhaka, Bangladesh (14.3) 10 Buenos Aires, Argentina (13.0) 11 Karachi, Pakistan (12.8) 12 Los Angeles-Long BeachSanta Ana, United States (12.7) 13 Beijing, China (12.2) 14 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (11.8) 15 Manila, Philippines (11.4) 16 Osaka-Kobe, Japan (11.3) 17 Cairo, Egypt (10.9) 18 Moscow, Russian Federation (10.5) 19 Paris, France (10.4) 20 Istanbul, Turkey (10.4) 21 Lagos, Nigeria (10.2) Sources: UNDESA, Population Division; UN-Habitat. Figure 1.5. Half of the world’s urban population lives in cities of fewer than 500,000 inhabitants World urban population distribution, by city size, 2009 Source: Calculations based on UNDESA, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2009 revision. 10 million + 9% 5 to 10 million 7% 1 to 5 million 22% 500,000 to 1 million 10% Fewer than 500,000 52%