Figure 1.1.Almost half of the world's children live in urban areas World population(0-19 years old) 27% 30% 33% 1955 1965 1975 services.Such disaggregated information is hard to find, that children confront.These instances show that it is however,and for the most part development is pursued, possible to fulfil commitments to children-but only and resources allocated,on the basis of statistical aver- if all children receive due attention and investment ages.One consequence of this is that children living and if the privilege of some is not allowed to obscure in informal settlements and impoverished neighbour- the disadvantages of others.Accordingly,the final hoods are excluded from essential services and social chapter of this report identifies broad policy actions that protection to which they have a right.This is happen- should be included in any strategy to reach excluded chil- ing as population growth puts existing infrastructure dren and foster equity in urban settings riven by disparity. and services under strain and urbanization becomes nearly synonymous with slum formation.According to the United Nations Human Settlements Programme An urban future (UN-Habitat),one city dweller in three lives in slum By 2050,7 in 10 people will live in urban areas.Every conditions,lacking security of tenure in overcrowded, year,the world's urban population increases by approx- unhygienic places characterized by unemployment, imately 60 million people.Most of this growth is pollution,traffic,crime,a high cost of living,poor taking place in low-and middle-income countries.Asia service coverage and competition over resources. is home to half of the world's urban population and 66 out of the 100 fastest-growing urban areas,33 of This report focuses mainly on those children in urban which are in China alone.Cities such as Shenzhen,with a settings all over the world who face a particularly 10 per cent rate of annual increase in 2008,are doubling complex set of challenges to their development and the in population every seven years.2 Despite a low overall fulfilment of their rights.Following an overview of the rate of urbanization,Africa has a larger urban population world's urban landscape,Chapter 2 looks at the status than North America or Western Europe,and more than of children in urban settings through the lens of inter- 6 in 10 Africans who live in urban areas reside in slums. national human rights instruments and development goals.Chapter 3 examines some of the phenomena New urban forms are evolving as cities expand and shaping the lives of children in urban areas,from their merge.Nearly 10 per cent of the urban population is reasons for coming to the city and their experience of found in megacities-each with more than 10 million migration to the challenges posed by economic shocks, people -which have multiplied across the globe. violence and acute disaster risk. New York and Tokyo,on the list since 1950,have been joined by a further 19,all but 3 of them in Asia, Clearly,urban life can be harsh.It need not be.Many Latin America and Africa.Yet most urban growth is cities have been able to contain or banish diseases that taking place not in megacities but in smaller cities and were widespread only a generation ago.Chapter 4 pre- towns,home to the majority of urban children and sents examples of efforts to improve the urban realities young people.3 THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CHILDREN 2012
2 THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2012 services. Such disaggregated information is hard to find, however, and for the most part development is pursued, and resources allocated, on the basis of statistical averages. One consequence of this is that children living in informal settlements and impoverished neighbourhoods are excluded from essential services and social protection to which they have a right. This is happening as population growth puts existing infrastructure and services under strain and urbanization becomes nearly synonymous with slum formation. According to the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), one city dweller in three lives in slum conditions, lacking security of tenure in overcrowded, unhygienic places characterized by unemployment, pollution, traffic, crime, a high cost of living, poor service coverage and competition over resources. This report focuses mainly on those children in urban settings all over the world who face a particularly complex set of challenges to their development and the fulfilment of their rights. Following an overview of the world’s urban landscape, Chapter 2 looks at the status of children in urban settings through the lens of international human rights instruments and development goals. Chapter 3 examines some of the phenomena shaping the lives of children in urban areas, from their reasons for coming to the city and their experience of migration to the challenges posed by economic shocks, violence and acute disaster risk. Clearly, urban life can be harsh. It need not be. Many cities have been able to contain or banish diseases that were widespread only a generation ago. Chapter 4 presents examples of efforts to improve the urban realities that children confront. These instances show that it is possible to fulfil commitments to children – but only if all children receive due attention and investment and if the privilege of some is not allowed to obscure the disadvantages of others. Accordingly, the final chapter of this report identifies broad policy actions that should be included in any strategy to reach excluded children and foster equity in urban settings riven by disparity. An urban future By 2050, 7 in 10 people will live in urban areas. Every year, the world’s urban population increases by approximately 60 million people. Most of this growth is taking place in low- and middle-income countries. Asia is home to half of the world’s urban population and 66 out of the 100 fastest-growing urban areas, 33 of which are in China alone. Cities such as Shenzhen, with a 10 per cent rate of annual increase in 2008, are doubling in population every seven years.2 Despite a low overall rate of urbanization, Africa has a larger urban population than North America or Western Europe, and more than 6 in 10 Africans who live in urban areas reside in slums. New urban forms are evolving as cities expand and merge. Nearly 10 per cent of the urban population is found in megacities – each with more than 10 million people – which have multiplied across the globe. New York and Tokyo, on the list since 1950, have been joined by a further 19, all but 3 of them in Asia, Latin America and Africa. Yet most urban growth is taking place not in megacities but in smaller cities and towns, home to the majority of urban children and young people.3 Figure 1.1. Almost half of the world’s children live in urban areas World population (0–19 years old) 27% 1955 30% 1965 33% 1975
36% 40% 43% Rural Urban 1985 1995 2005 Source:United Nations,Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA),Population Division. In contrast to rapid urban growth in the developing suggests that children born into existing urban popula- world,more than half of Europe's cities are expected tions account for around 60 per cent of urban growth.6 to shrink over the next two decades.+The size of the urban population in high-income countries is projected to remain largely unchanged through 2025,however, Poverty and exclusion with international migrants making up the balance.s For billions of people,the urban experience is one of poverty and exclusion.Yet standard data collec- Migration from the countryside has long driven urban tion and analysis fail to capture the full extent of both growth and remains a major factor in some regions. problems.Often,studies overlook those residents of a But the last comprehensive estimate,made in 1998, city whose homes and work are unofficial or unreg- istered-precisely those most likely to be poor or suffer discrimination.Moreover,official definitions of Figure 1.2.Urban population growth is greater in poverty seldom take sufficient account of the cost of less developed regions non-food needs.In consequence,poverty thresholds World urban population (0-19 years old) applied to urban populations make inadequate allow- Millions ance for the costs of transport,rent,water,sanitation, 1.200 schooling and health services.? 1.000 Difficult urban living conditions reflect and are exac- erbated by factors such as illegality,limited voice in 800 decision-making and lack of secure tenure,assets and legal protection.Exclusion is often reinforced by 600 discrimination on the grounds of gender,ethnicity,race or disability.In addition,cities often expand beyond 400 the capacity of the authorities to provide the infrastruc- ture and services needed to ensure people's health and 200 well-being.A significant proportion of urban popula- tion growth is occurring in the most unplanned and deprived areas.These factors combine to push essen- 19501955196019519701975198019851990199520002005 tial services beyond the reach of children and families Less developed regions living in poor urban neighbourhoods. Least developed countries(a subset of less developed regions) More developed regions Physical proximity to a service does not guarantee Source:UNDESA,Population Division. access.Indeed,many urban inhabitants live close to Children in an increasingly urban world
Children in an increasingly urban world 3 In contrast to rapid urban growth in the developing world, more than half of Europe’s cities are expected to shrink over the next two decades.4 The size of the urban population in high-income countries is projected to remain largely unchanged through 2025, however, with international migrants making up the balance.5 Migration from the countryside has long driven urban growth and remains a major factor in some regions. But the last comprehensive estimate, made in 1998, suggests that children born into existing urban populations account for around 60 per cent of urban growth.6 Poverty and exclusion For billions of people, the urban experience is one of poverty and exclusion. Yet standard data collection and analysis fail to capture the full extent of both problems. Often, studies overlook those residents of a city whose homes and work are unofficial or unregistered – precisely those most likely to be poor or suffer discrimination. Moreover, official definitions of poverty seldom take sufficient account of the cost of non-food needs. In consequence, poverty thresholds applied to urban populations make inadequate allowance for the costs of transport, rent, water, sanitation, schooling and health services.7 Difficult urban living conditions reflect and are exacerbated by factors such as illegality, limited voice in decision-making and lack of secure tenure, assets and legal protection. Exclusion is often reinforced by discrimination on the grounds of gender, ethnicity, race or disability. In addition, cities often expand beyond the capacity of the authorities to provide the infrastructure and services needed to ensure people’s health and well-being. A significant proportion of urban population growth is occurring in the most unplanned and deprived areas. These factors combine to push essential services beyond the reach of children and families living in poor urban neighbourhoods. Physical proximity to a service does not guarantee access. Indeed, many urban inhabitants live close to Figure 1.1. Almost half of the world’s children live in urban areas World population (0–19 years old) Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), Population Division. Rural Urban 36% 1985 40% 1995 43% 2005 Figure 1.2. Urban population growth is greater in less developed regions World urban population (0–19 years old) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 Less developed regions Least developed countries (a subset of less developed regions) More developed regions Source: UNDESA, Population Division. Millions
schools or hospitals but have little chance of using these worse than children living in rural poverty in terms of services.Even where guards or fees do not bar entry,poor height-for-weight and under-five mortality.3 people may lack the sense of entitlement and empower- ment needed to ask for services from institutions perceived Children's health is primarily determined by the socio- as the domain of those of higher social or economic rank. economic conditions in which they are born,grow and live,and these are in turn shaped by the distribution Inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanita- of power and resources.The consequences of having tion services puts children at increased risk of illness, too little of both are most readily evident in infor- undernutrition and death.When child health statis- mal settlements and slums,where roughly 1.4 billion tics are disaggregated,it becomes clear that even people will live by 2020.10 where services are nearby,children growing up in poor urban settings face significant health risks.In By no means do all of the urban poor live in slums- some cases,the risks exceed those prevalent in rural and by no means is every inhabitant of a slum poor. areas.s Studies demonstrate that in many countries, Nevertheless,slums are an expression of,and a practi- children living in urban poverty fare as badly as or cal response to,deprivation and exclusion. Social determinants of urban health Stark disparities in health between rich and poor have social policy prioritizing adequate housing;water and drawn attention to the social determinants of health,or sanitation;food security;efficient waste management the ways in which people's health is affected not only systems;and safer places to live,work and play can by the medical care and support systems available to effectively reduce health risk factors.Good governance prevent and manage illness,but also by the economic, that enables families from all urban strata to access social and political circumstances in which they are born high-quality services-education,health,public trans- and live. portation and childcare,for example-can play a major part in safeguarding the health of children in urban The urban environment is in itself a social determinant environments. of health.Urbanization drove the emergence of public health as a discipline because the concentration of Growing awareness of the potential of societal people in towns and cities made it easier for communicable circumstances to help or harm individuals'health has diseases to spread-mainly from poorer quarters to wealth- led to such initiatives as the World Health Organization's ier ones.An increasingly urban world is also contributing to Commission on Social Determinants of Health.Its recom- the rising incidence of non-communicable diseases,obesity, mendations emphasize that effectively addressing the alcohol and substance abuse,mental illness and injuries. causes of poor health in urban areas requires a range of solutions,from improving living conditions,through Many poor and marginalized groups live in slums and investment in health systems and progressive taxation,to informal settlements,where they are subjected to a improved governance,planning and accountability at the multitude of health threats.Children from these commu- local,national and international levels.The challenges nities are particularly vulnerable because of the stresses are greatest in low-and middle-income countries,where of their living conditions.As the prevalence of physical rapid urban population growth is seldom accompanied by and social settings of extreme deprivation increases,so adequate investment in infrastructure and services.The does the risk of reversing the overall success of disease Commission has also highlighted the need to address the prevention and control efforts. inequalities that deny power and resources to margin- alized populations,including women,indigenous people The urban environment need not harm people's health. and ethnic minorities. In addition to changes in individual behaviour,broader Source:World Health Organization;Global Research Network on Urban Health Equity. THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CHILDREN 2012
4 THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2012 schools or hospitals but have little chance of using these services. Even where guards or fees do not bar entry, poor people may lack the sense of entitlement and empowerment needed to ask for services from institutions perceived as the domain of those of higher social or economic rank. Inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation services puts children at increased risk of illness, undernutrition and death. When child health statistics are disaggregated, it becomes clear that even where services are nearby, children growing up in poor urban settings face significant health risks. In some cases, the risks exceed those prevalent in rural areas.8 Studies demonstrate that in many countries, children living in urban poverty fare as badly as or worse than children living in rural poverty in terms of height-for-weight and under-five mortality.9 Children’s health is primarily determined by the socioeconomic conditions in which they are born, grow and live, and these are in turn shaped by the distribution of power and resources. The consequences of having too little of both are most readily evident in informal settlements and slums, where roughly 1.4 billion people will live by 2020.10 By no means do all of the urban poor live in slums – and by no means is every inhabitant of a slum poor. Nevertheless, slums are an expression of, and a practical response to, deprivation and exclusion. Social determinants of urban health Stark disparities in health between rich and poor have drawn attention to the social determinants of health, or the ways in which people’s health is affected not only by the medical care and support systems available to prevent and manage illness, but also by the economic, social and political circumstances in which they are born and live. The urban environment is in itself a social determinant of health. Urbanization drove the emergence of public health as a discipline because the concentration of people in towns and cities made it easier for communicable diseases to spread – mainly from poorer quarters to wealthier ones. An increasingly urban world is also contributing to the rising incidence of non-communicable diseases, obesity, alcohol and substance abuse, mental illness and injuries. Many poor and marginalized groups live in slums and informal settlements, where they are subjected to a multitude of health threats. Children from these communities are particularly vulnerable because of the stresses of their living conditions. As the prevalence of physical and social settings of extreme deprivation increases, so does the risk of reversing the overall success of disease prevention and control efforts. The urban environment need not harm people’s health. In addition to changes in individual behaviour, broader social policy prioritizing adequate housing; water and sanitation; food security; efficient waste management systems; and safer places to live, work and play can effectively reduce health risk factors. Good governance that enables families from all urban strata to access high-quality services – education, health, public transportation and childcare, for example – can play a major part in safeguarding the health of children in urban environments. Growing awareness of the potential of societal circumstances to help or harm individuals’ health has led to such initiatives as the World Health Organization’s Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Its recommendations emphasize that effectively addressing the causes of poor health in urban areas requires a range of solutions, from improving living conditions, through investment in health systems and progressive taxation, to improved governance, planning and accountability at the local, national and international levels. The challenges are greatest in low- and middle-income countries, where rapid urban population growth is seldom accompanied by adequate investment in infrastructure and services. The Commission has also highlighted the need to address the inequalities that deny power and resources to marginalized populations, including women, indigenous people and ethnic minorities. Source: World Health Organization; Global Research Network on Urban Health Equity
the slum stands in the way of a major redevelopment. They may come without warning,let alone consulta- tion,and very often proceed without compensation or involve moving to an unfeasible location.The evictions themselves cause major upheaval and can destroy long- established economic and social systems and support networks-the existence of which should come as no surprise if one ponders what it takes to survive and advance in such challenging settings.Even those who are not actually evicted can suffer significant stress and insecurity from the threat of removal.Moreover,the constant displacement and abuse of marginalized popu- lations can further hinder access to essential services. A woman and child walk among the ruins of a low-income neighbourhood alongside a new residential development in Abuja,Nigeria. Despite their many deprivations,slum residents provide at least one essential service to the very soci- Impoverished people,denied proper housing and security eties from which they are marginalized-labour.Some of tenure by inequitable economic and social policies and of it is formal and some undocumented,but almost regulations governing land use and management,resort all is low-paid-for example,as factory hands,shop to renting or erecting illegal and often ramshackle dwell- assistants,street vendors and domestic workers. ings.These typically include tenements(houses that have been subdivided),boarding houses,squatter settlements (vacant plots or buildings occupied by people who do not own,rent or have permission to use them)and ille- Slums:The five deprivations gal subdivisions(in which a house or hut is built in the backyard of another,for example).Squatter settlements The United Nations Human Settlements became common in rapidly growing cities,particularly Programme(UN-Habitat)defines a slum household from the 1950s onward,because inexpensive housing as one that lacks one or more of the following: was in short supply.Where informal settlements were established on vacant land,people were able to build Access to improved water their own homes. An adequate quantity of water that is afford- able and available without excessive physical Illegal dwellings are poor in quality,relatively cheap- effort and time though they will often still consume about a quarter of Access to improved sanitation Access to an excreta disposal system,either household income-and notorious for the many hazards in the form of a private toilet or a public toilet they pose to health.Overcrowding and unsanitary condi- shared with a reasonable number of people tions facilitate the transmission of disease-including Security of tenure pneumonia and diarrhoea,the two leading killers of chil- Evidence or documentation that can be used dren younger than 5 worldwide.Outbreaks of measles, as proof of secure tenure status or for protec- tuberculosis and other vaccine-preventable diseases tion from forced evictions are also more frequent in these areas,where popula- Durability of housing tion density is high and immunization levels are low. Permanent and adequate structure in a non-hazardous location,protecting its inhabit- ants from the extremes of climatic conditions In addition to other perils,slum inhabitants frequently such as rain,heat,cold or humidity face the threat of eviction and maltreatment,not just by Sufficient living area landlords but also from municipal authorities intent on Not more than three people sharing the 'cleaning up'the area.Evictions may take place because same room of a wish to encourage tourism,because the country is hosting a major sporting event or simply because Children in an increasingly urban world
Children in an increasingly urban world 5 Impoverished people, denied proper housing and security of tenure by inequitable economic and social policies and regulations governing land use and management, resort to renting or erecting illegal and often ramshackle dwellings. These typically include tenements (houses that have been subdivided), boarding houses, squatter settlements (vacant plots or buildings occupied by people who do not own, rent or have permission to use them) and illegal subdivisions (in which a house or hut is built in the backyard of another, for example). Squatter settlements became common in rapidly growing cities, particularly from the 1950s onward, because inexpensive housing was in short supply. Where informal settlements were established on vacant land, people were able to build their own homes. Illegal dwellings are poor in quality, relatively cheap – though they will often still consume about a quarter of household income – and notorious for the many hazards they pose to health. Overcrowding and unsanitary conditions facilitate the transmission of disease – including pneumonia and diarrhoea, the two leading killers of children younger than 5 worldwide. Outbreaks of measles, tuberculosis and other vaccine-preventable diseases are also more frequent in these areas, where population density is high and immunization levels are low. In addition to other perils, slum inhabitants frequently face the threat of eviction and maltreatment, not just by landlords but also from municipal authorities intent on ‘cleaning up’ the area. Evictions may take place because of a wish to encourage tourism, because the country is hosting a major sporting event or simply because the slum stands in the way of a major redevelopment. They may come without warning, let alone consultation, and very often proceed without compensation or involve moving to an unfeasible location. The evictions themselves cause major upheaval and can destroy longestablished economic and social systems and support networks – the existence of which should come as no surprise if one ponders what it takes to survive and advance in such challenging settings. Even those who are not actually evicted can suffer significant stress and insecurity from the threat of removal. Moreover, the constant displacement and abuse of marginalized populations can further hinder access to essential services. Despite their many deprivations, slum residents provide at least one essential service to the very societies from which they are marginalized – labour. Some of it is formal and some undocumented, but almost all is low-paid – for example, as factory hands, shop assistants, street vendors and domestic workers. Slums: The five deprivations The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) defines a slum household as one that lacks one or more of the following: • Access to improved water An adequate quantity of water that is affordable and available without excessive physical effort and time • Access to improved sanitation Access to an excreta disposal system, either in the form of a private toilet or a public toilet shared with a reasonable number of people • Security of tenure Evidence or documentation that can be used as proof of secure tenure status or for protection from forced evictions • Durability of housing Permanent and adequate structure in a non-hazardous location, protecting its inhabitants from the extremes of climatic conditions such as rain, heat, cold or humidity • Sufficient living area Not more than three people sharing the same room A woman and child walk among the ruins of a low-income neighbourhood alongside a new residential development in Abuja, Nigeria. © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-2606/Michael Kamber
B50000 URBAN DISPARITIES On average,children in urban areas are national averages are disaggregated,it In Benin,Pakistan,Tajikistan and more likely to survive infancy and early becomes clear that many children living in Venezuela(Bolivarian Republic of),the childhood,enjoy better health and have urban poverty are clearly disadvantaged education gap between the richest 20 more educational opportunity than their and excluded from higher educa- per cent and the poorest 20 per cent is counterparts in rural areas.This effect is tion,health services and other benefits greater in urban than in rural areas.The often referred to as the 'urban advantage' enjoyed by their affluent peers. gap is widest in Venezuela,where pupils from the richest urban families have,on Nevertheless,the scale of inequality The figures below,called 'equity trees', average,almost eight years more school- within urban areas is a matter of great illustrate that,while vast disparities exist in ing than those from the poorest ones, concern.Gaps between rich and poor in rural areas,poverty also can severely limit compared with a gap of 5 years between towns and cities can sometimes equal or a child's education in urban areas-in some the wealthy and poor in rural areas.In exceed those found in rural areas.When cases,more so than in the countryside. Benin,Tajikistan and Venezuela,children Figure 1.3.Educational attainment can be most unequal in urban areas Average years of schooling among population aged 17-22,by location,wealth and gender Benin Pakistan 14 12 12 Tajikistan Tajikistan urban richest 20% female Venezuela(Bolivarian male Venezuela (Bolivarian male Republic of) Republic of) male -male rural richest 20% urban richest 20% 8 urban female rural richest 20% -female urban 6 6 Pakistan Pakistan female Benin rural Benin 4 male rural male male male urban poorest 20% Education poverty rural poorest 20% Education poverty rural poorest 20% -female 2 urban poorest 20% .female Extreme education poverty Extreme education poverty Source:UNICEF analysis based on UNESCO Deprivation and Marginalization in Education database (2009)using household survey data:Benin (DHS,2006): Pakistan (DHS,2007):Tajikistan (MICS,2005):Venezuela(Bolivarian Republic of)(MICS,2000) THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CHILDREN 2012
6 THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2012 THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2012 On average, children in urban areas are more likely to survive infancy and early childhood, enjoy better health and have more educational opportunity than their counterparts in rural areas. This effect is often referred to as the ‘urban advantage’. Nevertheless, the scale of inequality within urban areas is a matter of great concern. Gaps between rich and poor in towns and cities can sometimes equal or exceed those found in rural areas. When national averages are disaggregated, it becomes clear that many children living in urban poverty are clearly disadvantaged and excluded from higher education, health services and other benefits enjoyed by their affluent peers. The figures below, called ‘equity trees’, illustrate that, while vast disparities exist in rural areas, poverty also can severely limit a child’s education in urban areas – in some cases, more so than in the countryside. In Benin, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), the education gap between the richest 20 per cent and the poorest 20 per cent is greater in urban than in rural areas. The gap is widest in Venezuela, where pupils from the richest urban families have, on average, almost eight years more schooling than those from the poorest ones, compared with a gap of 5 years between the wealthy and poor in rural areas. In Benin, Tajikistan and Venezuela, children FOCUS ON Urban Disparities Source: UNICEF analysis based on UNESCO Deprivation and Marginalization in Education database (2009) using household survey data: Benin (DHS, 2006); Pakistan (DHS, 2007); Tajikistan (MICS, 2005); Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (MICS, 2000). Figure 1.3. Educational attainment can be most unequal in urban areas Average years of schooling among population aged 17–22, by location, wealth and gender 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Average years of schooling Extreme education poverty Education poverty Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Tajikistan urban rural male male female female male male female female Benin Pakistan urban richest 20% rural richest 20% rural poorest 20% urban poorest 20% Benin 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Extreme education poverty Education poverty urban rural urban richest 20% rural richest 20% urban poorest 20% rural poorest 20% Average years of schooling Benin Tajikistan Pakistan female male male female male male female female Pakistan Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)