THE WORLD BANK：world development report 2012 Gender Equality and Development

Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 xxiii o To increase women's voice in society, complementing these efforts in each of these policies include quotas on political rep- four priority areas and,more generally,in resentation,as has been done by many supporting evidence-based public action countries across the world,and mea- through better data,impact evaluation,and sures to foster and train future women learning. leaders and involve women more in In some areas,as with educational gender groups such as trade unions and pro- gaps,this will require adjusting current fessional associations. support,such as ensuring that the Educa- To limit the reproduction of gender in- tion for All Fast Track Initiative reaches equality across generations,it is impor- disadvantaged girls and boys,or sustain- tant to reach adolescents and young adults ing existing efforts,as with partnerships because this is the age when they make de- focused on adolescent girls. cisions that determine their acquisition of In other areas,it will demand new or skills,future health,economic prospects, additional action on multiple fronts- and aspirations.Interventions,therefore, some combination of more funding,co- need to focus on: ordinated efforts to foster innovation and o Building human and social capital learning,and more effective partnerships. as cash transfer programs have done o The funding should be directed partic- in Malawi,and improving informa- ularly to supporting the poorest coun- tion about returns to education and tries in reducing excess deaths of girls health education programs,which has and women (through investments in kept boys in school in the Dominican clean water and sanitation and mater- Republic; nal health services)and removing per- o Facilitating the transition from school sistent gender gaps in education. to work with job and life skills training o More support is needed especially to programs as in Uganda;and improve the availability of gender- o Shifting aspirations as with exposure to disaggregated data and to foster more role models such as woman political experimentation and systematic evalu- leaders in India who challenge prevail- ation of mechanisms to improve wom- ing social norms. en's access to markets,services,and justice. o The partnerships should extend be- THE ROLE OF THE yond governments and development INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY agencies to include the private sector, civil society organizations,and aca- While domestic policy action is crucial,the demic institutions in developing and international community can play a role in rich countries

Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 xxiii complementing these efforts in each of these four priority areas and, more generally, in supporting evidence-based public action through better data, impact evaluation, and learning. • In some areas, as with educational gender gaps, this will require adjusting current support, such as ensuring that the Educa￾tion for All Fast Track Initiative reaches disadvantaged girls and boys, or sustain￾ing existing efforts, as with partnerships focused on adolescent girls. • In other areas, it will demand new or additional action on multiple fronts— some combination of more funding, co￾ordinated efforts to foster innovation and learning, and more effective partnerships. The funding should be directed partic￾ularly to supporting the poorest coun￾tries in reducing excess deaths of girls and women (through investments in clean water and sanitation and mater￾nal health services) and removing per￾sistent gender gaps in education. More support is needed especially to improve the availability of gender￾disaggregated data and to foster more experimentation and systematic evalu￾ation of mechanisms to improve wom￾en’s access to markets, services, and justice. The partnerships should extend be￾yond governments and development agencies to include the private sector, civil society organizations, and aca￾demic institutions in developing and rich countries. To increase women’s voice in society, policies include quotas on political rep￾resentation, as has been done by many countries across the world, and mea￾sures to foster and train future women leaders and involve women more in groups such as trade unions and pro￾fessional associations. • To limit the reproduction of gender in￾equality across generations, it is impor￾tant to reach adolescents and young adults because this is the age when they make de￾cisions that determine their acquisition of skills, future health, economic prospects, and aspirations. Interventions, therefore, need to focus on: Building human and social capital as cash transfer programs have done in Malawi, and improving informa￾tion about returns to education and health education programs, which has kept boys in school in the Dominican Republic; Facilitating the transition from school to work with job and life skills training programs as in Uganda; and Shifting aspirations as with exposure to role models such as woman political leaders in India who challenge prevail￾ing social norms. THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY While domestic policy action is crucial, the international community can play a role in

World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development

World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development

Overview Baruani is reflecting on how women's and men's lives have changed over the past decade in Ijuhanyondo-a village in Tanzania."Ten years back was terrible,"she recalls."Women were very be- hind.They used to be only at home doing housework.But now,they are in businesses,they are in poli- tics."Others hold similar views."We do not depend a lot on men as it used to be,"says Agnetha."We have some cash for ourselves,and this assists us in being free from men and to some extent controlling our lives."In addition to managing their businesses,the women now make up half the members of the street committee that runs the village. Despite these positive changes,many challenges continue to weigh on women's daily lives.Fewer than half the homes in the village have piped water.Even more difficult,Tungise and other women of the village still fear violence by their partners:"When they are drunk,they can begin beating up women and children in the house.The worst bit of it is forcing sex with you."Although legally women can inherit land or a house,tradition prevails."Yes,women can inherit property,"says Flora,the executive secretary of the street committee."In fact,in the will the father is supposed to give each son and daughter some- thing,and nowadays the law is strict,equally.But still,men give to their sons and argue that women have the property of where they are married." Dodoma Rural Community Report,from "Defining Gender in the 21st Century:Talking with Women and Men around the World: A Multi-Country Qualitative Study of Gender and Economic Choice" (World Bank 2011) WHY DOES GENDER EQUALITY the law in such areas as property ownership, MATTER FOR DEVELOPMENT? inheritance,and marriage.In all,136 countries now have explicit guarantees for the equality of The story of Ijuhanyondo village in Tanzania all citizens and nondiscrimination between men mirrors the evolution of gender equality across and women in their constitutions. the world over the past quarter century.Although Progress has not come easily.And it has not many women continue to struggle with gender- come evenly to all countries or to all women-or based disadvantages in their daily lives,things across all dimensions of gender equality.The have changed for the better-and at a pace that likelihood of women dying during childbirth would have been unthinkable even two decades in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia ago.Women have made unprecedented gains in is still comparable to that in Northern Europe rights,in education and health,and in access to in the 19th century.A wealthy urban child in jobs and livelihoods.More countries than ever Nigeria-boy or girl-averages around 10 years guarantee women and men equal rights under of schooling,while poor rural Hausa girls aver-

WHY DOES GENDER EQUALITY MATTER FOR DEVELOPMENT? The story of Ijuhanyondo village in Tanzania mirrors the evolution of gender equality across the world over the past quarter century. Although many women continue to struggle with gender￾based disadvantages in their daily lives, things have changed for the better—and at a pace that would have been unthinkable even two decades ago. Women have made unprecedented gains in rights, in education and health, and in access to jobs and livelihoods. More countries than ever guarantee women and men equal rights under the law in such areas as property ownership, inheritance, and marriage. In all, 136 countries now have explicit guarantees for the equality of all citizens and nondiscrimination between men and women in their constitutions. Progress has not come easily. And it has not come evenly to all countries or to all women—or across all dimensions of gender equality. The likelihood of women dying during childbirth in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia is still comparable to that in Northern Europe in the 19th century. A wealthy urban child in Nigeria—boy or girl—averages around 10 years of schooling, while poor rural Hausa girls aver￾Overview Baruani is refl ecting on how women’s and men’s lives have changed over the past decade in Ijuhanyondo—a village in Tanzania. “Ten years back was terrible,” she recalls. “Women were very be￾hind. They used to be only at home doing housework. But now, they are in businesses, they are in poli￾tics.” Others hold similar views. “We do not depend a lot on men as it used to be,” says Agnetha. “We have some cash for ourselves, and this assists us in being free from men and to some extent controlling our lives.” In addition to managing their businesses, the women now make up half the members of the street committee that runs the village. Despite these positive changes, many challenges continue to weigh on women’s daily lives. Fewer than half the homes in the village have piped water. Even more diffi cult, Tungise and other women of the village still fear violence by their partners: “When they are drunk, they can begin beating up women and children in the house. The worst bit of it is forcing sex with you.” Although legally women can inherit land or a house, tradition prevails. “Yes, women can inherit property,” says Flora, the executive secretary of the street committee. “In fact, in the will the father is supposed to give each son and daughter some￾thing, and nowadays the law is strict, equally. But still, men give to their sons and argue that women have the property of where they are married.” Dodoma Rural Community Report, from “Defi ning Gender in the 21st Century: Talking with Women and Men around the World: A Multi-Country Qualitative Study of Gender and Economic Choice” (World Bank 2011)

Overview 3 age fewer than six months.The rate at which advancement of women and has been ratified to women die relative to men is higher in low-and date by 187 countries. middle-income countries compared with their high-income counterparts,especially in the crit- Gender equality matters for ical years of infancy and early childhood and development-It is smart economics in the reproductive period.Divorce or widow- Gender equality matters also as an instrument hood causes many women to become landless for development.As this Report shows,gender and lose their assets.Women continue to clus- equality is smart economics:it can enhance eco- ter in sectors and occupations characterized as nomic efficiency and improve other develop- “female'”-many of them lower paying.Women ment outcomes in three ways.First,removing are also more likely to be the victims of violence barriers that prevent women from having the at home and suffer more severe injuries.And same access as men to education,economic op- almost everywhere women's representation in portunities,and productive inputs can generate politics and in senior managerial positions in broad productivity gains-gains all the more business remains far lower than men's. important in a more competitive and globalized Do these patterns of gender inequality- world.Second,improving women's absolute and in human and physical capital endowments, relative status feeds many other development in economic opportunities,and in the ability outcomes,including those for their children. to make choices to achieve desired outcomes Third,leveling the playing field-where women (agency)-matter,particularly those that per- and men have equal chances to become socially sist even as the development process unfolds? and politically active,make decisions,and shape This World Development Report (WDR)ar- policies-is likely to lead over time to more rep- gues that they do for two reasons.First,gender resentative,and more inclusive,institutions and equality matters intrinsically,because the abil- policy choices and thus to a better development ity to live the life of one's own choosing and path.Consider each in turn. be spared from absolute deprivation is a basic human right and should be equal for everyone, Misallocating women's skills and talent independent of whether one is male or female. comes at a high(and rising)economic cost Second,gender equality matters instrumentally, Gender equality can have large impacts on pro- because greater gender equality contributes to ductivity.Women now represent more than 40 economic efficiency and the achievement of percent of the global labor force,43 percent of other key development outcomes. the agricultural workforce,and more than half of the world's university students.For an econ- Gender equality matters in its own right omy to be functioning at its potential,women's Following Amartya Sen,we see development skills and talents should be engaged in activities as a process of expanding freedoms equally for that make the best use of those abilities.But, all people.In this view of development,gen- as the stories of many women illustrate,this der equality is a core objective in itself (box is not always the case.When women's labor is 1).So,just as development means less income underused or misallocated-because they face poverty or better access to justice,it should also discrimination in markets or societal institu- mean fewer gaps in well-being between males tions that prevents them from completing their and females.This viewpoint is also evident in education,entering certain occupations,and the international development community's earning the same incomes as men-economic recognition that women's empowerment and losses are the result.When women farmers gender equality are development objectives in lack security of land tenure,as they do in many their own right,as embodied in Millennium countries,especially in Africa,the result is lower Development Goals 3 and 5 (box 2).It is seen access to credit and inputs and to inefficient as well in the adoption and widespread ratifica- land use,reducing yields.Discrimination in tion of the Convention on the Elimination of credit markets and other gender inequalities in All Forms of Discrimination against Women access to productive inputs also make it more (CEDAW).Adopted by the United Nations difficult for female-headed firms to be as pro- General Assembly in 1979,the convention es- ductive and profitable as male-headed ones. tablished a comprehensive framework for the And,when women are excluded from manage-

Overview 3 age fewer than six months. The rate at which women die relative to men is higher in low- and middle-income countries compared with their high-income counterparts, especially in the crit￾ical years of infancy and early childhood and in the reproductive period. Divorce or widow￾hood causes many women to become landless and lose their assets. Women continue to clus￾ter in sectors and occupations characterized as “female”—many of them lower paying. Women are also more likely to be the victims of violence at home and suffer more severe injuries. And almost everywhere women’s representation in politics and in senior managerial positions in business remains far lower than men’s. Do these patterns of gender inequality– in human and physical capital endowments, in economic opportunities, and in the ability to make choices to achieve desired outcomes (agency)—matter, particularly those that per￾sist even as the development process unfolds? This World Development Report (WDR) ar￾gues that they do for two reasons. First, gender equality matters intrinsically, because the abil￾ity to live the life of one’s own choosing and be spared from absolute deprivation is a basic human right and should be equal for everyone, independent of whether one is male or female. Second, gender equality matters instrumentally, because greater gender equality contributes to economic effi ciency and the achievement of other key development outcomes. Gender equality matters in its own right Following Amartya Sen, we see development as a process of expanding freedoms equally for all people. 1 In this view of development, gen￾der equality is a core objective in itself (box 1). So, just as development means less income poverty or better access to justice, it should also mean fewer gaps in well-being between males and females. This viewpoint is also evident in the international development community’s recognition that women’s empowerment and gender equality are development objectives in their own right, as embodied in Millennium Development Goals 3 and 5 (box 2). It is seen as well in the adoption and widespread ratifi ca￾tion of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, the convention es￾tablished a comprehensive framework for the advancement of women and has been ratifi ed to date by 187 countries. Gender equality matters for development—It is smart economics Gender equality matters also as an instrument for development. As this Report shows, gender equality is smart economics: it can enhance eco￾nomic effi ciency and improve other develop￾ment outcomes in three ways. First, removing barriers that prevent women from having the same access as men to education, economic op￾portunities, and productive inputs can generate broad productivity gains—gains all the more important in a more competitive and globalized world. Second, improving women’s absolute and relative status feeds many other development outcomes, including those for their children. Third, leveling the playing fi eld—where women and men have equal chances to become socially and politically active, make decisions, and shape policies—is likely to lead over time to more rep￾resentative, and more inclusive, institutions and policy choices and thus to a better development path. Consider each in turn. Misallocating women’s skills and talent comes at a high (and rising) economic cost Gender equality can have large impacts on pro￾ductivity. Women now represent more than 40 percent of the global labor force, 43 percent of the agricultural workforce, and more than half of the world’s university students. For an econ￾omy to be functioning at its potential, women’s skills and talents should be engaged in activities that make the best use of those abilities. But, as the stories of many women illustrate, this is not always the case. When women’s labor is underused or misallocated—because they face discrimination in markets or societal institu￾tions that prevents them from completing their education, entering certain occupations, and earning the same incomes as men—economic losses are the result. When women farmers lack security of land tenure, as they do in many countries, especially in Africa, the result is lower access to credit and inputs and to ineffi cient land use, reducing yields. Discrimination in credit markets and other gender inequalities in access to productive inputs also make it more diffi cult for female-headed fi rms to be as pro￾ductive and profi table as male-headed ones. And, when women are excluded from manage-

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Box1 What do we mean by gender equality? Gender refers to the social,behavioral,and cultural attributes, that arise from circumstances beyond the control of individuals and expectations,and norms associated with being a woman or a man. those that stem from differences in preferences and choices.A sub- Gender equality refers to how these aspects determine how women stantial body of research documents such male-female differences in and men relate to each other and to the resulting differences in risk aversion,social preferences,and attitudes about competition.It power between them. follows that if men and women differ,on average,in attitudes,prefer- This Report focuses on three key dimensions of gender equality ences,and choices,then not all observed differences in outcomes identified by men and women from Afghanistan to Poland to South can be attributed to differences in opportunities. Africa,as well as by researchers:the accumulation of endowments Those who argue for equality of outcomes argue that differ- (education,health,and physical assets);the use of those endow- ences in preferences and attitudes are largely "learned"and not ments to take up economic opportunities and generate incomes; inherent-that is,they are the result of culture and environment and the application of those endowments to take actions,or agency, that lead men and women to internalize social norms and expec- affecting individual and household well-being.These are aspects of tations.Persistent differences in power and status between men equality where shortfalls of choice are reflected in shortfalls of wel and women can become internalized in aspirations,behaviors,and fare.They matter in and of themselves.But they are also closely preferences that perpetuate the inequalities.So,it is difficult to interlinked. define equality of opportunity without also considering how actual Gender inequality is both similar to and different from inequal- outcomes are distributed.Only by attempting to equalize out- ity based on other attributes such as race or ethnicity.Three differ- comes can one break the vicious circle of low aspirations and low ences are of particular relevance to the analysis of gender equality. opportunity. First,the welfare of women and men living in the same household Despite this debate,it is difficult in practice to measure oppor- is difficult to measure separately,a problem that is compounded by tunities separately from outcomes.Indeed,equality of opportuni- the paucity of data on outcomes in the household.Second,prefer- ties and equality of outcomes are tightly linked both in theory and ences,needs,and constraints can differ systematically between in measurement.For this reason,the Report takes a pragmatic men and women,reflecting both biological factors and "learned" approach,focusing on both outcomes and opportunities in relation social behaviors.Third,gender cuts across distinctions of income to endowments,agency,and access to economic activities.Follow- and class.These characteristics raise the question whether gender ing Sen,we also believe that while people may disagree in what is equality should be measured as equality of outcomes or equality of just or fair,they will agree on eliminating what are outrageously opportunity.The economic and philosophical literature on this unjust arrangements."In other words,while it may be difficult issue is divided. to define whether gender equality is about outcomes or opportuni- Those who defend framing gender equality as equality of oppor- ties,most will agree that gross manifestations of gender inequality tunity argue that it allows one to distinguish between inequalities should be eliminated. Sources:Booth and Nolen 2009:Croson and Gneezy 2009:Gneezy,Leonard,and List 2009;Kabeer 1996;Sen 1999:World Bank 2011. Box2 The Millennium Development Goals recognize the intrinsic and instrumental value of gender equality The 2010 Millennium Development Goal (MDG)Sum- equality and women's empowerment are develop- mit concluded with the adoption of a global action ment objectives in their own right(MDG 3 and 5),as plan to achieve the eight goals by 2015.The summit well as serving as critical channels for achieving the also adopted a resolution calling for action to ensure other MDGs and reducing income and non-income gender parity in education and health,economic poverty.Gender equality and women's empower- opportunities,and decision making through gender ment help to promote universal primary education mainstreaming in development policy making.The (MDG 2),reduce under-five mortality (MDG 4), resolution and the action plan reflect the belief of the improve maternal health(MDG 5),and reduce the international development community that gender likelihood of contracting HIV/AIDS(MDG 6). Source:WDR 2012 team ment positions,managers are less skilled on function,is large:ensuring that women farmers average,reducing the pace of innovation and have the same access as men to fertilizer and other technology adoption. agricultural inputs would increase maize yields The direct payoff to correcting these failures, by 11 to 16 percent in Malawi and by 17 percent many rooted in how markets and institutions in Ghana.3 Improving women's property rights

4 WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 function, is large: ensuring that women farmers have the same access as men to fertilizer and other agricultural inputs would increase maize yields by 11 to 16 percent in Malawi and by 17 percent in Ghana.3 Improving women’s property rights ment positions, managers are less skilled on average, reducing the pace of innovation and technology adoption.2 The direct payoff to correcting these failures, many rooted in how markets and institutions The 2010 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) Sum￾mit concluded with the adoption of a global action plan to achieve the eight goals by 2015. The summit also adopted a resolution calling for action to ensure gender parity in education and health, economic opportunities, and decision making through gender mainstreaming in development policy making. The resolution and the action plan refl ect the belief of the international development community that gender BOX 2 The Millennium Development Goals recognize the intrinsic and instrumental value of gender equality Source: WDR 2012 team. equality and women’s empowerment are develop￾ment objectives in their own right (MDG 3 and 5), as well as serving as critical channels for achieving the other MDGs and reducing income and non-income poverty. Gender equality and women’s empower￾ment help to promote universal primary education (MDG 2), reduce under-fi ve mortality (MDG 4), improve maternal health (MDG 5), and reduce the likelihood of contracting HIV/AIDS (MDG 6). BOX 1 What do we mean by gender equality? Sources: Booth and Nolen 2009; Croson and Gneezy 2009; Gneezy, Leonard, and List 2009; Kabeer 1996; Sen 1999; World Bank 2011. Gender refers to the social, behavioral, and cultural attributes, expectations, and norms associated with being a woman or a man. Gender equality refers to how these aspects determine how women and men relate to each other and to the resulting diff erences in power between them. This Report focuses on three key dimensions of gender equality identifi ed by men and women from Afghanistan to Poland to South Africa, as well as by researchers: the accumulation of endowments (education, health, and physical assets); the use of those endow￾ments to take up economic opportunities and generate incomes; and the application of those endowments to take actions, or agency, aff ecting individual and household well-being. These are aspects of equality where shortfalls of choice are refl ected in shortfalls of wel￾fare. They matter in and of themselves. But they are also closely interlinked. Gender inequality is both similar to and diff erent from inequal￾ity based on other attributes such as race or ethnicity. Three diff er￾ences are of particular relevance to the analysis of gender equality. First, the welfare of women and men living in the same household is diffi cult to measure separately, a problem that is compounded by the paucity of data on outcomes in the household. Second, prefer￾ences, needs, and constraints can diff er systematically between men and women, refl ecting both biological factors and “learned” social behaviors. Third, gender cuts across distinctions of income and class. These characteristics raise the question whether gender equality should be measured as equality of outcomes or equality of opportunity. The economic and philosophical literature on this issue is divided. Those who defend framing gender equality as equality of oppor￾tunity argue that it allows one to distinguish between inequalities that arise from circumstances beyond the control of individuals and those that stem from diff erences in preferences and choices. A sub￾stantial body of research documents such male-female diff erences in risk aversion, social preferences, and attitudes about competition. It follows that if men and women diff er, on average, in attitudes, prefer￾ences, and choices, then not all observed diff erences in outcomes can be attributed to diff erences in opportunities. Those who argue for equality of outcomes argue that diff er￾ences in preferences and attitudes are largely “learned” and not inherent—that is, they are the result of culture and environment that lead men and women to internalize social norms and expec￾tations. Persistent diff erences in power and status between men and women can become internalized in aspirations, behaviors, and preferences that perpetuate the inequalities. So, it is diffi cult to defi ne equality of opportunity without also considering how actual outcomes are distributed. Only by attempting to equalize out￾comes can one break the vicious circle of low aspirations and low opportunity. Despite this debate, it is diffi cult in practice to measure oppor￾tunities separately from outcomes. Indeed, equality of opportuni￾ties and equality of outcomes are tightly linked both in theory and in measurement. For this reason, the Report takes a pragmatic approach, focusing on both outcomes and opportunities in relation to endowments, agency, and access to economic activities. Follow￾ing Sen, we also believe that while people may disagree in what is just or fair, they will agree on eliminating what are “outrageously unjust arrangements.” In other words, while it may be diffi cult to defi ne whether gender equality is about outcomes or opportuni￾ties, most will agree that gross manifestations of gender inequality should be eliminated