world development rope GENDER EQUALITY ANDDEVELOPMENT THE WORLD BANK
2012 world development report GENDER EQUALITY ANDDEVELOPMENT
2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone:202-473-1000 Internet:www.worldbank.org All rights reserved 123414131211 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel- opment/The World Bank.The findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries,colors,denominations,and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted.Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law.The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work,please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc.,222 Rosewood Drive,Dan- vers,MA 01923,USA;telephone:978-750-8400;fax:978-750-4470;Internet:www.copyright .com. All other queries on rights and licenses,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher,The World Bank,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433, USA;fax:202-522-2422;e-mail:pubrights@worldbank.org. Softcover ISSN:0163-5085 ISBN:978-0-8213-8810-5 eISBN:978-0-8213-8812-9 DOL:10.1596/978-0-8213-8810-5 Hardcover ISSN:0163-5085 ISBN:978-0-8213-8825-9 D0L:10.1596/978-0-8213-8825-9 Cover photo:Arne Hoel,World Bank Photo credits:Overview/World Bank,Part I/National Geographic,Part II/Kiet Vo, Part III/National Geographic Cover design:Critical Stages Figures design and infographics:Design Symphony,Cymetrics,Harkness Design, and Naylor Design For the firts time,the World Development Report is published with a companino mobile app for the iPad.Key features include:access content from the WDR 2012 in multiple ways; browse by key messages;browse and search the report by topic,region,and keyboard;access the report overview and key messages document,both available in 7 languages;share and save features;and view tabular data from the report.For more information,visit bit.ly/ wdr2012app
© 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 14 13 12 11 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The fi ndings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily refl ect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright .com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Offi ce of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Softcover ISSN: 0163-5085 ISBN: 978-0-8213-8810-5 eISBN: 978-0-8213-8812-9 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8810-5 Hardcover ISSN: 0163-5085 ISBN: 978-0-8213-8825-9 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8825-9 Cover photo: Arne Hoel, World Bank Photo credits: Overview/World Bank, Part I/National Geographic, Part II/Kiet Vo, Part III/National Geographic Cover design: Critical Stages Figures design and infographics: Design Symphony, Cymetrics, Harkness Design, and Naylor Design For the fi rts time, the World Development Report is published with a companino mobile app for the iPad. Key features include: access content from the WDR 2012 in multiple ways; browse by key messages; browse and search the report by topic, region, and keyboard; access the report overview and key messages document, both available in 7 languages; share and save features; and view tabular data from the report. For more information, visit bit.ly/ wdr2012app
Contents Foreword xiii Acknowledgments XV Abbreviations and data notes xvii Main messages XX Overview 2 Why does gender equality matter for development? What does this Report do?6 Where has there been the most progress in gender equality? 8 Where have gender inequalities persisted and why?13 What is to be done?22 The political economy of reforms for gender equality 35 A global agenda for greater gender equality 36 Notes 38 References 40 Introduction:A guide to the Report 46 Gender equality and development:Why do the links matter? 46 What does this Report do?48 Navigating this Report:A roadmap 50 Notes 51 References 51 Part I Taking stock of gender equality 54 1 A wave of progress 56 Times are changing?56 Rising global consensus for women's rights 57 Better outcomes for women in many domains 59 Change begets change 66 Notes 69 References 69
v Contents Foreword xiii Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations and data notes xvii Main messages xx Overview 2 Why does gender equality matter for development? 2 What does this Report do? 6 Where has there been the most progress in gender equality? 8 Where have gender inequalities persisted and why? 13 What is to be done? 22 The political economy of reforms for gender equality 35 A global agenda for greater gender equality 36 Notes 38 References 40 Introduction: A guide to the Report 46 Gender equality and development: Why do the links matter? 46 What does this Report do? 48 Navigating this Report: A roadmap 50 Notes 51 References 51 Part I Taking stock of gender equality 54 1 A wave of progress 56 Times are changing? 56 Rising global consensus for women’s rights 57 Better outcomes for women in many domains 59 Change begets change 66 Notes 69 References 69
i CONTENTS 2 The persistence of gender inequality 72 Severely disadvantaged populations 73 “Sticky”domains,.despite economic progress 76 Reversals 85 “Sticky”gets“stickier” 87 Notes 88 References 89 Spread 1 Women's pathways to empowerment:Do all roads lead to Rome? 94 Notes 97 References 97 Part ll What has driven progress?What impedes it? 98 Explaining the framework 99 Applying the framework 101 Notes 102 References 102 3 Education and health:Where do gender differences really matter？ 104 Endowments matter 105 Education 106 Health 117 Technical Annex 3.1 Computing the flow of missing girls at birth and excess female mortality after birth 139 Chapter summary:In reducing gender gaps in education and health, tremendous progress has been made where lifting a single barrier-in households,markets,or institutions-is sufficient to improve outcomes. Progress has been slower either where multiple barriers need to be lifted at the same time or where a single point of entry produces bottlenecks 141 Notes 142 References 143 Promoting women's agency 150 Women's agency matters 151 Economic growth can promote women's agency but has limited impact 152 Rights and their effective implementation shape women's choices and voices 157 Social norms prevent-or promote-gains in women's agency 168 Women's collective agency can shape institutions,markets,and social norms 176 Chapter summary:Women continue to have less capacity than men to exercise agency 181
vi CONTENTS 2 The persistence of gender inequality 72 Severely disadvantaged populations 73 “Sticky” domains, despite economic progress 76 Reversals 85 “Sticky” gets “stickier” 87 Notes 88 References 89 Spread 1 Women’s pathways to empowerment: Do all roads lead to Rome? 94 Notes 97 References 97 Part II What has driven progress? What impedes it? 98 Explaining the framework 99 Applying the framework 101 Notes 102 References 102 3 Education and health: Where do gender differences really matter? 104 Endowments matter 105 Education 106 Health 117 Technical Annex 3.1 Computing the fl ow of missing girls at birth and excess female mortality after birth 139 Chapter summary: In reducing gender gaps in education and health, tremendous progress has been made where lifting a single barrier—in households, markets, or institutions—is suffi cient to improve outcomes. Progress has been slower either where multiple barriers need to be lifted at the same time or where a single point of entry produces bottlenecks 141 Notes 142 References 143 4 Promoting women’s agency 150 Women’s agency matters 151 Economic growth can promote women’s agency but has limited impact 152 Rights and their effective implementation shape women’s choices and voices 157 Social norms prevent—or promote—gains in women’s agency 168 Women’s collective agency can shape institutions, markets, and social norms 176 Chapter summary: Women continue to have less capacity than men to exercise agency 181
Contents vii Notes 182 References 184 Spread 2 The decline of the breadwinner:Men in the 21st century 194 Note 196 5 Gender differences in employment and why they matter 198 Understanding gender differences in productivity and earnings 201 What explains employment segregation by gender?A first look 210 Gender,time use,and employment segregation 215 Gender differences in access to productive inputs and employment segregation 224 Gender impacts of "aggregate"market and institutional failures 230 Breaking out of the productivity trap:How and why to do it 236 Chapter summary:Persistent employment segregation by gender traps women in low-productivity,low-paying jobs 239 Notes 240 References 242 6 Globalization's impact on gender equality: What's happened and what's needed 254 The world is becoming more integrated-Recent trends and facts 255 Trade openness and ICTs have increased women's access to economic opportunities 255 Adapt or miss the boat 264 Globalization could also promote more egalitarian gender roles and norms 267 Old problems,emerging risks 269 Is the glass half full or half empty?The need for public action 271 Chapter summary:Globalization has the potential to contribute to greater gender equality 271 Notes 272 References 273 Spread 3 Changing ages,changing bodies,changing times-Adolescent boys and girls 280 Note 283 Part Ill The role of and potential for public action 284 Choosing the right policies 285 Enabling policy implementation 285 The global agenda for action 286 7 Public action for gender equality 288 Policies to reduce gaps in health and education 289 Policies to improve economic opportunities 296
Contents vii Notes 182 References 184 Spread 2 The decline of the breadwinner: Men in the 21st century 194 Note 196 5 Gender differences in employment and why they matter 198 Understanding gender differences in productivity and earnings 201 What explains employment segregation by gender? A fi rst look 210 Gender, time use, and employment segregation 215 Gender differences in access to productive inputs and employment segregation 224 Gender impacts of “aggregate” market and institutional failures 230 Breaking out of the productivity trap: How and why to do it 236 Chapter summary: Persistent employment segregation by gender traps women in low-productivity, low-paying jobs 239 Notes 240 References 242 6 Globalization’s impact on gender equality: What’s happened and what’s needed 254 The world is becoming more integrated—Recent trends and facts 255 Trade openness and ICTs have increased women’s access to economic opportunities 255 Adapt or miss the boat 264 Globalization could also promote more egalitarian gender roles and norms 267 Old problems, emerging risks 269 Is the glass half full or half empty? The need for public action 271 Chapter summary: Globalization has the potential to contribute to greater gender equality 271 Notes 272 References 273 Spread 3 Changing ages, changing bodies, changing times—Adolescent boys and girls 280 Note 283 Part III The role of and potential for public action 284 Choosing the right policies 285 Enabling policy implementation 285 The global agenda for action 286 7 Public action for gender equality 288 Policies to reduce gaps in health and education 289 Policies to improve economic opportunities 296