THE WORLD BANK：world development report 2012 Gender Equality and Development

xviii ABBREVIATIONS AND DATA NOTES GBA Global Banking Alliance for Women GDP gross domestic product GEME Gender Equity Model Egypt HDI Human Development Index HIV human immunodeficiency virus 12D2 International Income Distribution Database ICRW International Center for the Research on Women ICT information and communications technology IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labor Organization ITES information technology enabled service ITU International Telecommunications Union JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KCP Knowledge for Change Program LABORSTA International Labour Organization Bureau of Statistics database LAC Latin America and the Caribbean Region LFPRs labor force participation rates MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation MDGs Millennium Development Goals MNA Middle East and North Africa Region MHHH male-headed households MMR maternal mortality rate MTUS Multinational Time Use Study NAALC North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NGO nongovernmental organization NHO Neeringslivets Hovedorganisasjon(Confederation of Norwegian Enterprises) NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NSS national statistical systems OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD-DAC Gendernet Development Assistance Committee's Network on Gender Equality of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PEKKA Pemberdayaan Perempuan Kepala Keluarga(Female-Headed Households Empowerment Program) PETT Proyecto Especial de Titulacion de Tierras(Special Land Titling Project) PISA Program for International Student Assessment PROBECAT Programa de Becas de Capacitacion para Trabajadores(Labor Retraining Scholarship Program) REFLEX Research into Employment and Professional Flexibility database RIGA Rural Income Generating Activities database ROSCAs rotating savings and credit associations SADC Southern African Development Community SAR South Asia Region SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SERNAM Servicio Nacional de la Mujer(National Women's Service) SEWA Self-employed Women's Association SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SMEs small and medium enterprises

xviii ABBREVIATIONS AND DATA NOTES GBA Global Banking Alliance for Women GDP gross domestic product GEME Gender Equity Model Egypt HDI Human Development Index HIV human immunodefi ciency virus I2D2 International Income Distribution Database ICRW International Center for the Research on Women ICT information and communications technology IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labor Organization ITES information technology enabled service ITU International Telecommunications Union JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KCP Knowledge for Change Program LABORSTA International Labour Organization Bureau of Statistics database LAC Latin America and the Caribbean Region LFPRs labor force participation rates MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation MDGs Millennium Development Goals MNA Middle East and North Africa Region MHHH male-headed households MMR maternal mortality rate MTUS Multinational Time Use Study NAALC North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NGO nongovernmental organization NHO Næringslivets Hovedorganisasjon (Confederation of Norwegian Enterprises) NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NSS national statistical systems OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD-DAC Gendernet Development Assistance Committee’s Network on Gender Equality of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PEKKA Pemberdayaan Perempuan Kepala Keluarga (Female-Headed Households Empowerment Program) PETT Proyecto Especial de Titulación de Tierras (Special Land Titling Project) PISA Program for International Student Assessment PROBECAT Programa de Becas de Capacitación para Trabajadores (Labor Retraining Scholarship Program) REFLEX Research into Employment and Professional Flexibility database RIGA Rural Income Generating Activities database ROSCAs rotating savings and credit associations SADC Southern African Development Community SAR South Asia Region SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SERNAM Servicio Nacional de la Mujer (National Women’s Service) SEWA Self-employed Women’s Association SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SMEs small and medium enterprises

Abbreviations and data notes xix SSA Sub-Saharan Africa Region UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UNAIDS Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Program UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development UN WOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization WINGOs women's international nongovernmental organizations DATA NOTES The countries included in regional and income groupings in this Report are listed in the Classification of Economies table at the end of the Selected World Development Indicators. Income classifications are based on GNP per capita;thresholds for income classifications in this edition may be found in the Introduction to Selected World Development Indicators. Group averages reported in the figures and tables are unweighted averages of the countries in the group,unless noted to the contrary. The use of the word countries to refer to economies implies no judgment by the World Bank about the legal or other status of a territory.The term developing countries includes low- and middle-income economies and thus may include economies in transition from central planning,as a matter of convenience.The term advanced countries may be used as a matter of convenience to denote high-income economies. Note:Dollar figures are current U.S.dollars,unless otherwise specified.Billion means 1,000 million;trillion means 1,000 billion

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa Region UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UNAIDS Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Program UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development UN WOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization WINGOs women’s international nongovernmental organizations DATA NOTES The countries included in regional and income groupings in this Report are listed in the Classifi cation of Economies table at the end of the Selected World Development Indicators. Income classifi cations are based on GNP per capita; thresholds for income classifi cations in this edition may be found in the Introduction to Selected World Development Indicators. Group averages reported in the fi gures and tables are unweighted averages of the countries in the group, unless noted to the contrary. The use of the word countries to refer to economies implies no judgment by the World Bank about the legal or other status of a territory. The term developing countries includes low￾and middle-income economies and thus may include economies in transition from central planning, as a matter of convenience. The term advanced countries may be used as a matter of convenience to denote high-income economies. Note: Dollar fi gures are current U.S. dollars, unless otherwise specifi ed. Billion means 1,000 million; trillion means 1,000 billion. Abbreviations and data notes xix

Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 GENDER EQUALITY MATTERS Empowering women as economic,political, FOR DEVELOPMENT and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more representative of Gender equality is a core development objec- a range of voices.In India,giving power to tive in its own right.It is also smart economics. women at the local level led to increases in Greater gender equality can enhance produc- the provision of public goods,such as water tivity,improve development outcomes for the and sanitation,which mattered more to next generation,and make institutions more women. representative. Productivity gains.Women now represent DEVELOPMENT HAS CLOSED SOME 40 percent of the global labor force,43 per- cent of the world's agricultural labor force, GENDER GAPS... and more than half the world's university students.Productivity will be raised if their The disadvantages faced by women and girls skills and talents are used more fully.For ex- that have shrunk most rapidly over the past ample,if women farmers were to have the quarter century include: same access as men to fertilizers and other Educational enrollment.Gender gaps in pri- inputs,maize yields would increase by almost mary education have closed in almost all one-sixth in Malawi and Ghana.And elimi- countries.In secondary education,these gaps nating barriers that discriminate against are closing rapidly and have reversed in many women working in certain sectors or occupa- countries,especially in Latin America,the tions could increase labor productivity by as Caribbean,and East Asia-but it is now much as 25 percent in some countries. boys and young men who are disadvantaged. Among developing countries,girls now out- Improved outcomes for the next generation. Greater control over household resources by number boys in secondary schools in 45 women can enhance countries'growth pros- countries and there are more young women than men in universities in 60 countries. pects by changing spending patterns in ways that benefit children.And improvements in Life expectancy.Since 1980,women are liv- women's education and health have been ing longer than men in all parts of the world. linked to better outcomes for their children And,in low-income countries,women now in countries as varied as Brazil,Nepal,Paki- live 20 years longer on average than they did stan,and Senegal. in1960. More representative decision making.Gen- .Labor force participation.Over half a billion der equality matters for society more broadly. women have joined the world's labor force

GENDER EQUALITY MATTERS FOR DEVELOPMENT Gender equality is a core development objec￾tive in its own right. It is also smart economics. Greater gender equality can enhance produc￾tivity, improve development outcomes for the next generation, and make institutions more representative. • Productivity gains. Women now represent 40 percent of the global labor force, 43 per￾cent of the world’s agricultural labor force, and more than half the world’s university students. Productivity will be raised if their skills and talents are used more fully. For ex￾ample, if women farmers were to have the same access as men to fertilizers and other inputs, maize yields would increase by almost one-sixth in Malawi and Ghana. And elimi￾nating barriers that discriminate against women working in certain sectors or occupa￾tions could increase labor productivity by as much as 25 percent in some countries. • Improved outcomes for the next generation. Greater control over household resources by women can enhance countries’ growth pros￾pects by changing spending patterns in ways that benefi t children. And improvements in women’s education and health have been linked to better outcomes for their children in countries as varied as Brazil, Nepal, Paki￾stan, and Senegal. • More representative decision making. Gen￾der equality matters for society more broadly. Empowering women as economic, political, and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more representative of a range of voices. In India, giving power to women at the local level led to increases in the provision of public goods, such as water and sanitation, which mattered more to women. DEVELOPMENT HAS CLOSED SOME GENDER GAPS . . . The disadvantages faced by women and girls that have shrunk most rapidly over the past quarter century include: • Educational enrollment. Gender gaps in pri￾mary education have closed in almost all countries. In secondary education, these gaps are closing rapidly and have reversed in many countries, especially in Latin America, the Caribbean, and East Asia—but it is now boys and young men who are disadvantaged. Among developing countries, girls now out￾number boys in secondary schools in 45 countries and there are more young women than men in universities in 60 countries. • Life expectancy. Since 1980, women are liv￾ing longer than men in all parts of the world. And, in low-income countries, women now live 20 years longer on average than they did in 1960. • Labor force participation. Over half a billion women have joined the world’s labor force Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012

Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 xxi over the last 30 years as women's partici- UNDERSTANDING PROGRESS pation in paid work has risen in most of AND PERSISTENCE the developing world.An important rea- son has been the unprecedented reduc- Income growth by itself does not deliver tion in fertility in developing countries greater gender equality on all fronts.Indeed, as diverse as Bangladesh,Colombia,and where gender gaps have closed quickly,it is the Islamic Republic of Iran. because of how markets and institutions- formal and informalhave functioned and evolved,how growth has played out,and ..BUT OTHER GAPS PERSIST how all these factors have interacted through household decisions.For example,in educa- Gender disparities still remain in many areas, tion,income growth (by loosening bud- and even in rich countries.The most persis- get constraints),markets(by opening new tent and egregious gaps include: employment opportunities for women),and .Excess deaths of girls and women.Fe- formal institutions (by expanding schools and lowering costs)have all come together males are more likely to die,relative to to influence household decisions in favor of males,in many low-and middle-income countries than their counterparts in rich educating girls and young women across a broad range of countries. countries.These deaths are estimated at about 3.9 million women and girls under the age of 60 each year.About two-fifths Gender gaps persist where girls and women of them are never born,one-sixth die in face other disadvantages.For poor women in early childhood,and over one-third die in poor places,sizable gender gaps remain.And these disparities are even larger when pov- their reproductive years.And this number erty combines with other forms of exclusion, is growing in Sub-Saharan Africa,espe- such as remoteness,ethnicity,and disability. cially in childhood and the reproductive years and in the countries hardest hit by For ethnic minority women in Vietnam,for the HIV/AIDS epidemic. instance,more than 60 percent of childbirths occur without prenatal care-twice as many Disparities in girls'schooling.Despite as for the majority Kinh women. the overall progress,primary and second- ary school enrollments for girls remain Markets,institutions,and households can much lower than for boys for disadvan- also combine to limit progress.Gender gaps taged populations in many Sub-Saharan in productivity and earnings,for exam- countries and some parts of South Asia. ple,are pervasive.And they are driven by Unequal access to economic opportuni- deep-seated gender differences in time use ties.Women are more likely than men to (reflecting social norms about house and work as unpaid family laborers or in the care work),in rights of ownership and con- trol over land and assets,and in the workings informal sector.Women farmers tend to of markets and formal institutions,which farm smaller plots and less profitable work in ways that disadvantage women. crops than men.Women entrepreneurs operate in smaller firms and less profit- able sectors.As a result,women every- Globalization can help.In today's globalized world,forces such as trade openness and the where tend to earn less than men. spread of cheaper information and com- Differences in voice in households and munication technologies have the potential in society.In many countries,women- to reduce gender disparities by connecting especially poor women-have less say women to markets and economic opportu- over decisions and less control over re- nities,reshaping attitudes and norms among sources in their households.And in most women and men about gender relations, countries,women participate less in for- and encouraging countries to promote gen- mal politics than men and are under- der equality.But their impact will be muted represented in its upper echelons. without effective domestic public action

Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 xxi UNDERSTANDING PROGRESS AND PERSISTENCE Income growth by itself does not deliver greater gender equality on all fronts. Indeed, where gender gaps have closed quickly, it is because of how markets and institutions— formal and informal—have functioned and evolved, how growth has played out, and how all these factors have interacted through household decisions. For example, in educa￾tion, income growth (by loosening bud￾get constraints), markets (by opening new employment opportunities for women), and formal institutions (by expanding schools and lowering costs) have all come together to infl uence household decisions in favor of educating girls and young women across a broad range of countries. Gender gaps persist where girls and women face other disadvantages. For poor women in poor places, sizable gender gaps remain. And these disparities are even larger when pov￾erty combines with other forms of exclusion, such as remoteness, ethnicity, and disability. For ethnic minority women in Vietnam, for instance, more than 60 percent of childbirths occur without prenatal care—twice as many as for the majority Kinh women. Markets, institutions, and households can also combine to limit progress. Gender gaps in productivity and earnings, for exam￾ple, are pervasive. And they are driven by deep-seated gender differences in time use (refl ecting social norms about house and care work), in rights of ownership and con￾trol over land and assets, and in the workings of markets and formal institutions, which work in ways that disadvantage women. Globalization can help. In today’s globalized world, forces such as trade openness and the spread of cheaper information and com￾munication technologies have the potential to reduce gender disparities by connecting women to markets and economic opportu￾nities, reshaping attitudes and norms among women and men about gender relations, and encouraging countries to promote gen￾der equality. But their impact will be muted without effective domestic public action. over the last 30 years as women’s partici￾pation in paid work has risen in most of the developing world. An important rea￾son has been the unprecedented reduc￾tion in fertility in developing countries as diverse as Bangladesh, Colombia, and the Islamic Republic of Iran. . . . BUT OTHER GAPS PERSIST Gender disparities still remain in many areas, and even in rich countries. The most persis￾tent and egregious gaps include: • Excess deaths of girls and women. Fe￾males are more likely to die, relative to males, in many low- and middle-income countries than their counterparts in rich countries. These deaths are estimated at about 3.9 million women and girls under the age of 60 each year. About two-fi fths of them are never born, one-sixth die in early childhood, and over one-third die in their reproductive years. And this number is growing in Sub-Saharan Africa, espe￾cially in childhood and the reproductive years and in the countries hardest hit by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. • Disparities in girls’ schooling. Despite the overall progress, primary and second￾ary school enrollments for girls remain much lower than for boys for disadvan￾taged populations in many Sub-Saharan countries and some parts of South Asia. • Unequal access to economic opportuni￾ties. Women are more likely than men to work as unpaid family laborers or in the informal sector. Women farmers tend to farm smaller plots and less profi table crops than men. Women entrepreneurs operate in smaller fi rms and less profi t￾able sectors. As a result, women every￾where tend to earn less than men. • Differences in voice in households and in society. In many countries, women— especially poor women—have less say over decisions and less control over re￾sources in their households. And in most countries, women participate less in for￾mal politics than men and are under￾represented in its upper echelons

xxii WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 PRIORITIES FOR DOMESTIC and young women when poverty,ethnic- POLICY ACTION ity,or geography excludes them,and to reach boys where gender disadvantages Policy makers in developing countries will have reversed.Cash transfers conditioned need to focus on those gender gaps where on school attendance are often effective in the payoffs for development are potentially reaching these groups.Pakistan has used the largest,higher incomes by themselves do such transfers to get girls from poor fami- little to reduce these gaps,and a reorienta- lies to school,while Jamaica has relied on tion of policies would yield the greatest ben- them to keep at-risk boys in school. efit.These priorities are: To narrow disparities between women .Addressing excess deaths of girls and and men in earnings and productivity, women and eliminating gender disadvan- a combination of policies is needed to tage in education where these remain address the various constraints that dis- entrenched. proportionately affect women's access to economic opportunities.Depending on Closing differences in access to economic context,these include measures to: opportunities and the ensuing earnings and productivity gaps between women o Lift women's time constraints,by pro- viding child care as with Colombia's and men. subsidized day-care programs for work- .Shrinking gender differences in voice ing mothers,and improving infrastruc- within households and societies. ture as with South Africa's rural electri- Limiting the reproduction of gender in- fication program. equality across generations. o Improve women's access to productive resources,especially to land as was done Focused and sustained domestic pub- in Ethiopia by granting joint land titles lic action is essential to bring about gender to wives and husbands,and to credit as equality.And to be effective,these policies will in Bangladesh. need to target the root causes of gender gaps. In some areas,as with maternal mortality, o Tackle information problems and in- stitutional biases that work against governments will need to address the single women.These include the use of quo- binding constraint to progress(weak service delivery institutions).In others,as with dif- tas or job placement programs as is be- ing done in Jordan,or reforming gen- ferential access to economic opportunities, der biases in service delivery institutions policies will be needed that tackle the multi- ple constraints that come from the workings as was done for agricultural extension of markets and institutions to limit progress. through women's self-help groups in the Indian state of Orissa In these cases,policy makers will need to pri- oritize these constraints and address them To diminish gender differences in house- simultaneously or sequentially. hold and societal voice,policies need to address the combined influence of social To reduce excess deaths of girls and norms and beliefs,women's access to eco- women in infancy,early childhood,and nomic opportunities,the legal framework, the reproductive years,policy action to and women's education and skills: improve the delivery of services(especially o To equalize voice within households, of clean water,sanitation,and maternal care)is of primary importance.Vietnam measures that increase women's control has been able to reduce excess mortality over household resources and laws that among young girls by expanding access to enhance the ability of women to accu- clean water and sanitation.And Turkey mulate assets,especially by strengthen- has reduced maternal mortality through ing their property rights,are of particu- improved health care delivery and a focus lar importance.Recent reforms of family law in Morocco that equalized on expectant mothers the ownership rights of husbands and To shrink persisting educational gaps, wives over property acquired during policies need to improve access for girls marriage are an example

xxii WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 and young women when poverty, ethnic￾ity, or geography excludes them, and to reach boys where gender disadvantages have reversed. Cash transfers conditioned on school attendance are often effective in reaching these groups. Pakistan has used such transfers to get girls from poor fami￾lies to school, while Jamaica has relied on them to keep at-risk boys in school. • To narrow disparities between women and men in earnings and productivity, a combination of policies is needed to address the various constraints that dis￾proportionately affect women’s access to economic opportunities. Depending on context, these include measures to: Lift women’s time constraints, by pro￾viding child care as with Colombia’s subsidized day-care programs for work￾ing mothers, and improving infrastruc￾ture as with South Africa’s rural electri- fi cation program. Improve women’s access to productive resources, especially to land as was done in Ethiopia by granting joint land titles to wives and husbands, and to credit as in Bangladesh. Tackle information problems and in￾stitutional biases that work against women. These include the use of quo￾tas or job placement programs as is be￾ing done in Jordan, or reforming gen￾der biases in service delivery institutions as was done for agricultural extension through women’s self-help groups in the Indian state of Orissa. • To diminish gender differences in house￾hold and societal voice, policies need to address the combined infl uence of social norms and beliefs, women’s access to eco￾nomic opportunities, the legal framework, and women’s education and skills: To equalize voice within households, measures that increase women’s control over household resources and laws that enhance the ability of women to accu￾mulate assets, especially by strengthen￾ing their property rights, are of particu￾lar importance. Recent reforms of family law in Morocco that equalized the ownership rights of husbands and wives over property acquired during marriage are an example. PRIORITIES FOR DOMESTIC POLICY ACTION Policy makers in developing countries will need to focus on those gender gaps where the payoffs for development are potentially the largest, higher incomes by themselves do little to reduce these gaps, and a reorienta￾tion of policies would yield the greatest ben￾efi t. These priorities are: • Addressing excess deaths of girls and women and eliminating gender disadvan￾tage in education where these remain entrenched. • Closing differences in access to economic opportunities and the ensuing earnings and productivity gaps between women and men. • Shrinking gender differences in voice within households and societies. • Limiting the reproduction of gender in￾equality across generations. Focused and sustained domestic pub￾lic action is essential to bring about gender equality. And to be effective, these policies will need to target the root causes of gender gaps. In some areas, as with maternal mortality, governments will need to address the single binding constraint to progress (weak service delivery institutions). In others, as with dif￾ferential access to economic opportunities, policies will be needed that tackle the multi￾ple constraints that come from the workings of markets and institutions to limit progress. In these cases, policy makers will need to pri￾oritize these constraints and address them simultaneously or sequentially. • To reduce excess deaths of girls and women in infancy, early childhood, and the reproductive years, policy action to improve the delivery of services (especially of clean water, sanitation, and maternal care) is of primary importance. Vietnam has been able to reduce excess mortality among young girls by expanding access to clean water and sanitation. And Turkey has reduced maternal mortality through improved health care delivery and a focus on expectant mothers. • To shrink persisting educational gaps, policies need to improve access for girls