Foreword The lives of girls and women have changed dramatically over the past quarter century.Today, more girls and women are literate than ever before,and in a third of developing countries, there are more girls in school than boys.Women now make up over 40 percent of the global labor force.Moreover,women live longer than men in all regions of the world.The pace of change has been astonishing-indeed,in many developing countries,they have been faster than the equivalent changes in developed countries:What took the United States 40 years to achieve in increasing girls'school enrollment has taken Morocco just a decade. In some areas,however,progress toward gender equality has been limited-even in devel- oped countries.Girls and women who are poor,live in remote areas,are disabled,or belong to minority groups continue to lag behind.Too many girls and women are still dying in child- hood and in the reproductive ages.Women still fall behind in earnings and productivity,and in the strength of their voices in society.In some areas,such as education,there is now a gen- der gap to the disadvantage of men and boys. The main message of this year's World Development Report:Gender Equality and Develop- ment is that these patterns of progress and persistence in gender equality matter,both for development outcomes and policy making.They matter because gender equality is a core development objective in its own right.But greater gender equality is also smart economics, enhancing productivity and improving other development outcomes,including prospects for the next generation and for the quality of societal policies and institutions.Economic develop- ment is not enough to shrink all gender disparities-corrective policies that focus on persist- ing gender gaps are essential. This Report points to four priority areas for policy going forward.First,reducing gender gaps in human capital-specifically those that address female mortality and education.Sec- ond,closing gender gaps in access to economic opportunities,earnings,and productivity. Third,shrinking gender differences in voice and agency within society.Fourth,limiting the reproduction of gender inequality across generations.These are all areas where higher incomes by themselves do little to reduce gender gaps,but focused policies can have a real impact. Public actions need to address the underlying determinants of gender gaps in each pri- ority area-in some cases,improving service delivery (especially for clean water,sanitation, and maternal care),for others,tackling constraints that originate in the workings of mar- kets and institutions to limit progress(for example,in reducing gender gaps in earnings and productivity). Development partners can complement public action.In each of the four priority areas, efforts need more funding(particularly to support the poorest countries as they address female mortality and gender gaps in education);better gender-disaggregated data;more experimentation and systematic evaluation;and broader partnerships that include the private sector,development agencies,and civil society organizations. xiii
xiii Foreword The lives of girls and women have changed dramatically over the past quarter century. Today, more girls and women are literate than ever before, and in a third of developing countries, there are more girls in school than boys. Women now make up over 40 percent of the global labor force. Moreover, women live longer than men in all regions of the world. The pace of change has been astonishing—indeed, in many developing countries, they have been faster than the equivalent changes in developed countries: What took the United States 40 years to achieve in increasing girls’ school enrollment has taken Morocco just a decade. In some areas, however, progress toward gender equality has been limited—even in developed countries. Girls and women who are poor, live in remote areas, are disabled, or belong to minority groups continue to lag behind. Too many girls and women are still dying in childhood and in the reproductive ages. Women still fall behind in earnings and productivity, and in the strength of their voices in society. In some areas, such as education, there is now a gender gap to the disadvantage of men and boys. The main message of this year’s World Development Report: Gender Equality and Development is that these patterns of progress and persistence in gender equality matter, both for development outcomes and policy making. They matter because gender equality is a core development objective in its own right. But greater gender equality is also smart economics, enhancing productivity and improving other development outcomes, including prospects for the next generation and for the quality of societal policies and institutions. Economic development is not enough to shrink all gender disparities—corrective policies that focus on persisting gender gaps are essential. This Report points to four priority areas for policy going forward. First, reducing gender gaps in human capital—specifi cally those that address female mortality and education. Second, closing gender gaps in access to economic opportunities, earnings, and productivity. Third, shrinking gender differences in voice and agency within society. Fourth, limiting the reproduction of gender inequality across generations. These are all areas where higher incomes by themselves do little to reduce gender gaps, but focused policies can have a real impact. Public actions need to address the underlying determinants of gender gaps in each priority area—in some cases, improving service delivery (especially for clean water, sanitation, and maternal care), for others, tackling constraints that originate in the workings of markets and institutions to limit progress (for example, in reducing gender gaps in earnings and productivity). Development partners can complement public action. In each of the four priority areas, efforts need more funding (particularly to support the poorest countries as they address female mortality and gender gaps in education); better gender-disaggregated data; more experimentation and systematic evaluation; and broader partnerships that include the private sector, development agencies, and civil society organizations
xiv FOREWORD Gender equality is at the heart of development.It's the right development objective,and it's smart economic policy.The World Development Report 2012 can help both countries and international partners think through and integrate a focus on gender equality into develop- ment policy making and programming. 见ktb了nlow Robert B.Zoellick President The World Bank Group
xiv FOREWORD Gender equality is at the heart of development. It’s the right development objective, and it’s smart economic policy. The World Development Report 2012 can help both countries and international partners think through and integrate a focus on gender equality into development policy making and programming. Robert B. Zoellick President The World Bank Group
Acknowledgments This Report has been prepared by a core team led by Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty,and comprising Luis Benveniste,Aline Coudouel,Jishnu Das,Markus Goldstein,Ana Maria Munoz Boudet,and Carolina Sanchez-Paramo.Research assistance was provided by Rabia Ali,Maria Ines Berniell,Rita Costa,Nina Rosas,and Lucia Solbes Castro.The multi- country qualitative assessment was coordinated by PattiL.Petesch and Carolyn Turk.Extensive and valuable contributions were made by Andre Croppenstedt,Malcolm Ehrenpreis,Rebekka Grun,Mary Hallward-Driemeier,Tazeen Hasan,Karla Hoff,Ghazala Mansuri,Claudio E. Montenegro,and Bob Rijkers. The World Development Report 2012 is co-sponsored by the Development Econom- ics Vice-Presidency(DEC)and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Vice- Presidency(PREM).The work was conducted under the joint guidance of Justin Yifu Lin in DEC and Otaviano Canuto dos Santos Filho in PREM.Ann E.Harrison and the DEC team and Mayra Buvinic and the PREM Gender(PRMGE)team provided valuable guidance and contributions at various stages of the production of this report. A panel of advisers comprising Bina Agarwal,Ragui Assad,Anne Case,Alison Evans,Raquel Fernandez,Naila Kabeer,Ravi Kanbur,Santiago Levy,and Germano Mwabu provided excel- lent advice.Valuable comments and contributions were provided by Kathleen Beegle,Laura Chioda,Louise Cord,Maria Correia,Monica Das Gupta,Shantayanan Devarajan,Marianne Fay,Francisco H.G.Ferreira,Ariel Fiszbein,Indermit Gill,Alejandro Hoyos,Emmanuel Jime- nez,Elizabeth King,Andrew Mason,William Maloney,Ambar Narayan,Pierella Paci,Tara Vishwanath,and Michael Walton.Many others inside and outside the World Bank contrib- uted with valuable comments and input(their names are listed in the Bibliographical Note). World Bank President Robert B.Zoellick and Managing Directors Sri Mulyani Indrawati, Mahmoud Mohieldin,and Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala provided invaluable guidance and advice. The team benefited greatly from many consultations,meetings,and regional workshops held locally and in-country.These discussions included policy makers,civil society represen- tatives,academics,and development partners from Benin,Bolivia,Burkina Faso,Burundi,the Caribbean nations,the Central African Republic,Chile,Colombia,the Dominican Repub- lic,Georgia,Guatemala,India,Indonesia,Jordan,Kenya,Kuwait,Lebanon,Mali,Mexico, Morocco,Panama,Paraguay,Rwanda,Senegal,the Slovak Republic,South Africa,Sudan, Tanzania,Thailand,Togo,Turkey,Uganda,Uruguay,Vietnam,Zambia,and Zimbabwe. Consultations were also held at different stages of report preparation with representatives from multilateral and bilateral partners,including the Australian Agency for International Development (AUSAID),the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA),the Inter-American Commission of Women-Organization of American States(CIM-OAS),the Danish International Development Agency(DANIDA),the U.K.Department for International Development(DFID),the Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO),the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),the International Labour Organization(ILO),the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland,MCC,NORAD,the Organisation for Economic Co-operation XV
xv Acknowledgments This Report has been prepared by a core team led by Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty, and comprising Luis Benveniste, Aline Coudouel, Jishnu Das, Markus Goldstein, Ana María Muñoz Boudet, and Carolina Sánchez-Páramo. Research assistance was provided by Rabia Ali, María Inés Berniell, Rita Costa, Nina Rosas, and Lucía Solbes Castro. The multicountry qualitative assessment was coordinated by Patti L. Petesch and Carolyn Turk. Extensive and valuable contributions were made by Andre Croppenstedt, Malcolm Ehrenpreis, Rebekka Grun, Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Tazeen Hasan, Karla Hoff, Ghazala Mansuri, Claudio E. Montenegro, and Bob Rijkers. The World Development Report 2012 is co-sponsored by the Development Economics Vice-Presidency (DEC) and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management VicePresidency (PREM). The work was conducted under the joint guidance of Justin Yifu Lin in DEC and Otaviano Canuto dos Santos Filho in PREM. Ann E. Harrison and the DEC team and Mayra Buvinic and the PREM Gender (PRMGE) team provided valuable guidance and contributions at various stages of the production of this report. A panel of advisers comprising Bina Agarwal, Ragui Assad, Anne Case, Alison Evans, Raquel Fernández, Naila Kabeer, Ravi Kanbur, Santiago Levy, and Germano Mwabu provided excellent advice. Valuable comments and contributions were provided by Kathleen Beegle, Laura Chioda, Louise Cord, Maria Correia, Monica Das Gupta, Shantayanan Devarajan, Marianne Fay, Francisco H. G. Ferreira, Ariel Fiszbein, Indermit Gill, Alejandro Hoyos, Emmanuel Jimenez, Elizabeth King, Andrew Mason, William Maloney, Ambar Narayan, Pierella Paci, Tara Vishwanath, and Michael Walton. Many others inside and outside the World Bank contributed with valuable comments and input (their names are listed in the Bibliographical Note). World Bank President Robert B. Zoellick and Managing Directors Sri Mulyani Indrawati, Mahmoud Mohieldin, and Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala provided invaluable guidance and advice. The team benefi ted greatly from many consultations, meetings, and regional workshops held locally and in-country. These discussions included policy makers, civil society representatives, academics, and development partners from Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Burundi, the Caribbean nations, the Central African Republic, Chile, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Georgia, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mali, Mexico, Morocco, Panama, Paraguay, Rwanda, Senegal, the Slovak Republic, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Turkey, Uganda, Uruguay, Vietnam, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Consultations were also held at different stages of report preparation with representatives from multilateral and bilateral partners, including the Australian Agency for International Development (AUSAID), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the Inter-American Commission of Women-Organization of American States (CIM-OAS), the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), the U.K. Department for International Development (DFID), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, MCC, NORAD, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and Development-Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC)Gendernet,the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation(SDC),the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency(SIDA),UN Women,the United Nations Children's Fund(UNICEF), the United States Agency for International Development(USAID),and the United Nations Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC)55th Commission on the Status of Women. The team would like to acknowledge the generous support of the Government of Nor- way through its Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs,SDC,AUSAID,CIDA,the Government of Sweden through its Ministry for Foreign Affairs,the multi-donor Knowledge for Change Program(KCP),the Nike Foundation,the World Bank Nordic Trust Fund,and Fast Track Initiative Education Program Development Fund;as well as the in-kind support from JICA, DFID,and OECD. The team wishes to acknowledge the excellent support of the WDR production team com- prising Rebecca Sugui,Cecile Wodon,and Mihaela Stangu,and of the resource management team of Sonia Joseph and Evangeline Santo Domingo.We thank also Ivar Cederholm,Vivian Hon,Jimmy Olazo,and Irina Sergeyeva for their constant support.Other valuable assistance was provided by Gytis Kanchas and Nacer Mohamed Megherbi.Vamsee Krishna Kanchi, Swati P.Mishra,Merrell Tuck-Primdahl,and Roula Yazigi assisted the team with the website and communications. Bruce Ross-Larson was the principal editor.The Development Data Group contributed to the data appendix and was responsible for the Selected World Development Indicators. Design Symphony contributed to the design.The Office of the Publisher and GSDTR pro- vided excellent publishing,translation,and dissemination services,with special thanks to Mary Fisk,Stephen McGroarty,Nancy Lammers,Santiago Pombo-Bejarano,Denise Bergeron, Rick Ludwick,Cecile Jannotin,Hector Hernaez,and Bouchra Belfqih for their contributions
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and Development-Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC) Gendernet, the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), UN Women, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 55th Commission on the Status of Women. The team would like to acknowledge the generous support of the Government of Norway through its Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, SDC, AUSAID, CIDA, the Government of Sweden through its Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the multi-donor Knowledge for Change Program (KCP), the Nike Foundation, the World Bank Nordic Trust Fund, and Fast Track Initiative Education Program Development Fund; as well as the in-kind support from JICA, DFID, and OECD. The team wishes to acknowledge the excellent support of the WDR production team comprising Rebecca Sugui, Cecile Wodon, and Mihaela Stangu, and of the resource management team of Sonia Joseph and Evangeline Santo Domingo. We thank also Ivar Cederholm, Vivian Hon, Jimmy Olazo, and Irina Sergeyeva for their constant support. Other valuable assistance was provided by Gytis Kanchas and Nacer Mohamed Megherbi. Vamsee Krishna Kanchi, Swati P. Mishra, Merrell Tuck-Primdahl, and Roula Yazigi assisted the team with the website and communications. Bruce Ross-Larson was the principal editor. The Development Data Group contributed to the data appendix and was responsible for the Selected World Development Indicators. Design Symphony contributed to the design. The Offi ce of the Publisher and GSDTR provided excellent publishing, translation, and dissemination services, with special thanks to Mary Fisk, Stephen McGroarty, Nancy Lammers, Santiago Pombo-Bejarano, Denise Bergeron, Rick Ludwick, Cecile Jannotin, Hector Hernaez, and Bouchra Belfqih for their contributions
Abbreviations and data notes ABBREVIATIONS AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ALMPs active labor market policies ANC African National Congress APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ART antiretroviral therapy ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ATM automated teller machine AUSAID Australian Agency for International Development BPO business process outsourcing CARICOM Caribbean Community CCT conditional cash transfer CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CGAP Consultative Group to Assist the Poor CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIM-OAS Inter-American Commission of Women(Organization of American States) CWDI Corporate Women Directors International DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DFCU Development Finance Company of Uganda DFID United Kingdom Department for International Development EAP East Asia and Pacific Region ECA Europe and Central Asia Region ECD early child development ECOSOC Economic and social council (United Nations) EdAttain Education Attainment and Enrollment around the World database EFM excess female mortality EU European Union EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDI foreign direct investment FENATRAD Federagao Nacional dos Trabalhadores Domesticos(National Federation of Domestic Workers) FGC female genital cutting FHHH female-headed households FINCA Foundation for International Community Assistance FLFPR female labor force participation rate FPE free primary education xvii
xvii Abbreviations and data notes ABBREVIATIONS AIDS acquired immunodefi ciency syndrome ALMPs active labor market policies ANC African National Congress APEC Asia-Pacifi c Economic Cooperation ART antiretroviral therapy ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ATM automated teller machine AUSAID Australian Agency for International Development BPO business process outsourcing CARICOM Caribbean Community CCT conditional cash transfer CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CGAP Consultative Group to Assist the Poor CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIM-OAS Inter-American Commission of Women (Organization of American States) CWDI Corporate Women Directors International DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DFCU Development Finance Company of Uganda DFID United Kingdom Department for International Development EAP East Asia and Pacifi c Region ECA Europe and Central Asia Region ECD early child development ECOSOC Economic and social council (United Nations) EdAttain Education Attainment and Enrollment around the World database EFM excess female mortality EU European Union EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDI foreign direct investment FENATRAD Federação Nacional dos Trabalhadores Domésticos (National Federation of Domestic Workers) FGC female genital cutting FHHH female-headed households FINCA Foundation for International Community Assistance FLFPR female labor force participation rate FPE free primary education