xxviIi Contents 2-11 Proteins are formed from amino acids and contain 3-7) The transmembrane potential results from the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 50 unequal distribution of ions across the plasma Protein structure 50 membrane 96 Protein Shape 50 3-8) Stages of a cell's life cycle include interphase, mitosis, Enzyme Function 51 and cytokinesis Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans DNA Replication 96 2-12 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids 54 Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis 97 Structure of nucleic acids The Mitotic Rate and Energy Use 100 RNA and dNa 55 3-9) Several growth factors affect the cell life cycle 100 2-13 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 56 3-10) Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal 2-14 Chemicals form functional units called cells 57 cell growth and division 101 3-11 Differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of Clinical Notes gene activation or repression 102 Solute Concentrations 40 Chapter Review 103 Fatty Acids and Health 46 Clinical Notes Spotlight Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders 77 Chemical notation 35 DNA Fingerprinting 80 Drugs and the Plasma Membrane 87 Telomerase, Aging, and Cancer 102 The Cellular level of Parkinsons Disease 103 Spotlights Organization 62 Anatomy of a Model Cell 64 D An Introduction to Cells 63 Stages of a Cell's Life Cycle 98 3-1 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various Membrane Lipids 63 The Tissue Level of Membrane proteins 66 Organization 108 Membrane Carbohydrates 67 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform particular D An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization 109 functions 68 4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective muscle, and neural 109 4-2) Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities 3-3) The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for and tubular structures, and serves essential controlling cellular activities 78 functions 109 Contents of the nucleus 79 Functions of Epithelial Tissue 110 Information Storage in the Nucleus 80 Specializations of Epithelial Cells 110 3-4 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia lll function 81 4-3) Cell shape and number of layers determine the The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis 81 classification of epithelia 113 The Transcription of mRNA 81 Classification of Epithelia 113 Translation 82 dular Epithelia 115 How the Nucleus Controls cell Structure and Function 84 4-4 Connective tissue provides a protective structural framework for other tissue types 120 3-5) Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism that Classification of connective tissues 121 assists membrane passage 85 Connective Tissue Proper 121 Diffusion 86 Diffusion across plasma Membranes 87 4-5) Cartilage and bone provide a strong supporting framework 127 6D Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport mechanisms Cartilage 127 assist membrane passage Carrier-Mediated Transport 90 Vesicular Transport 92
xxviii Contents 3-7 ◗ The transmembrane potential results from the unequal distribution of ions across the plasma membrane 96 3-8 ◗ Stages of a cell’s life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis 96 DNA Replication 96 Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis 97 The Mitotic Rate and Energy Use 100 3-9 ◗ Several growth factors affect the cell life cycle 100 3-10 ◗ Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal cell growth and division 101 3-11 ◗ Differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression 102 Chapter Review 103 Clinical Notes Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders 77 DNA Fingerprinting 80 Mutations 83 Drugs and the Plasma Membrane 87 Telomerase, Aging, and Cancer 102 Parkinson’s Disease 103 Spotlights Anatomy of a Model Cell 64 Protein Synthesis 74 Stages of a Cell’s Life Cycle 98 2-11 ◗ Proteins are formed from amino acids and contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 50 Protein Structure 50 Protein Shape 50 Enzyme Function 51 Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans 54 2-12 ◗ DNA and RNA are nucleic acids 54 Structure of Nucleic Acids 54 RNA and DNA 55 2-13 ◗ ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 56 2-14 ◗ Chemicals form functional units called cells 57 Chapter Review 58 Clinical Notes Solute Concentrations 40 Fatty Acids and Health 46 Spotlight Chemical Notation 35 3 The Cellular Level of Organization 62 ◗ An Introduction to Cells 63 3-1 ◗ The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions 63 Membrane Lipids 63 Membrane Proteins 66 Membrane Carbohydrates 67 3-2 ◗ Organelles within the cytoplasm perform particular functions 68 The Cytosol 68 The Organelles 68 3-3 ◗ The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities 78 Contents of the Nucleus 79 Information Storage in the Nucleus 80 3-4 ◗ DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function 81 The Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis 81 The Transcription of mRNA 81 Translation 82 How the Nucleus Controls Cell Structure and Function 84 3-5 ◗ Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism that assists membrane passage 85 Diffusion 86 Diffusion across Plasma Membranes 87 3-6 ◗ Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport mechanisms assist membrane passage 90 Carrier-Mediated Transport 90 Vesicular Transport 92 4 The Tissue Level of Organization 108 ◗ An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization 109 4-1 ◗ The four tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural 109 4-2 ◗ Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities and tubular structures, and serves essential functions 109 Functions of Epithelial Tissue 110 Specializations of Epithelial Cells 110 Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia 111 4-3 ◗ Cell shape and number of layers determine the classification of epithelia 113 Classification of Epithelia 113 Glandular Epithelia 115 4-4 ◗ Connective tissue provides a protective structural framework for other tissue types 120 Classification of Connective Tissues 121 Connective Tissue Proper 121 4-5 ◗ Cartilage and bone provide a strong supporting framework 127 Cartilage 127 Bone 130
Contents xXix 4-6) Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types 5-3) Sunlight causes epidermal cells to convert a steroid mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial 131 into vitamin D3 15 Mucous membranes 131 5-4 Epidermal growth factor has several effects on the Serous membranes 131 epidermis and epithelia 152 The Cutaneous membrane 132 5-5) The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the Synovial Membranes 133 4-7) Connective tissues create the internal framework of Dermal Strength and Elasticity 153 the body 133 Cleavage Lines 153 4-8) The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, The Dermal Blood Supply 153 and smooth 134 Innervation of the Skin 15 Skeletal Muscle Tissue 135 5-6) The hypodermis is tissue beneath the dermis that Cardiac Muscle Tissue 135 connects it to underlying tissues 154 Smooth Muscle tissue 135 5-7) Hair is composed of keratinized dead cells that have 4-9) Neural tissue responds to stimuli and conducts been pushed to the surface 155 electrical impulses throughout the body 137 Hair Production 157 4-10 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation The Hair Growth Cycle 157 and regeneration 138 Types of Hairs 157 nflammation 138 Hair Color 157 Regeneration 138 5-8) Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine 4-11 With advancing age, tissue repair declines and cancer glands found in the skin 158 rates increase 138 Sebaceous glands 158 Aging and Tissue Structure 138 Sweat Glands 159 Aging and Cancer Incidence 140 Other Integumentary Glands 160 hapter Review 14 Control of glandular Secretions and the homeostatic Clinical Notes Role of the Integument 160 Exfoliative Cytology 115 5-9 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect the Marfan's Syndrome 123 tips of finge Problems with Serous Membranes 133 Spotlight 5-10) Several steps are involved in repairing the integument Tissue Repair 139 following an injury 161 5-11 Effects of aging include dermal thinning, wrinkling and reduced melanocyte activity 164 UNIT2 SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT Chapter Review 166 Clinical notes Skin Cancer 151 Decubitis Ulcers 154 The Integumentary suction 155 Burns and Grafts 163 System 144 Skin abnormalities 164 D An Introduction to the Integumentary System 145 5-1 The epidermis is composed of strata(layers)with 6 Osseous Tissue and bone various functions 146 Structure 169 Stratum Spinosum 147 Stratum granulosum 148 D An Introduction to the Skeletal System 170 Stratum Lucidum 1 6-1 The skeletal system has five primary functions 170 Stratum Corneum 148 6-2) Bones are classified according to shape and structure 5-2 Factors influencing skin color are epidermal and feature surface markings 170 pigmentation and dermal circulation 149 The Role of Epidermal Pigmentation 149 Bone Markings 171 The role of dermal circulation 150 Bone structure 171
5 The Integumentary System 144 ◗ An Introduction to the Integumentary System 145 5-1 ◗ The epidermis is composed of strata (layers) with various functions 146 Stratum Basale 147 Stratum Spinosum 147 Stratum Granulosum 148 Stratum Lucidum 148 Stratum Corneum 148 5-2 ◗ Factors influencing skin color are epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation 149 The Role of Epidermal Pigmentation 149 The Role of Dermal Circulation 150 Contents xxix 4-6 ◗ Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types: mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial 131 Mucous Membranes 131 Serous Membranes 131 The Cutaneous Membrane 132 Synovial Membranes 133 4-7 ◗ Connective tissues create the internal framework of the body 133 4-8 ◗ The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth 134 Skeletal Muscle Tissue 135 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 135 Smooth Muscle Tissue 135 4-9 ◗ Neural tissue responds to stimuli and conducts electrical impulses throughout the body 137 4-10 ◗ The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration 138 Inflammation 138 Regeneration 138 4-11 ◗ With advancing age, tissue repair declines and cancer rates increase 138 Aging and Tissue Structure 138 Aging and Cancer Incidence 140 Chapter Review 140 Clinical Notes Exfoliative Cytology 115 Marfan’s Syndrome 123 Problems with Serous Membranes 133 Spotlight Tissue Repair 139 UNIT 2 SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT 5-3 ◗ Sunlight causes epidermal cells to convert a steroid into vitamin D3 150 5-4 ◗ Epidermal growth factor has several effects on the epidermis and epithelia 152 5-5 ◗ The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the epidermis 152 Dermal Strength and Elasticity 153 Cleavage Lines 153 The Dermal Blood Supply 153 Innervation of the Skin 154 5-6 ◗ The hypodermis is tissue beneath the dermis that connects it to underlying tissues 154 5-7 ◗ Hair is composed of keratinized dead cells that have been pushed to the surface 155 Hair Production 157 The Hair Growth Cycle 157 Types of Hairs 157 Hair Color 157 5-8 ◗ Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine glands found in the skin 158 Sebaceous Glands 158 Sweat Glands 159 Other Integumentary Glands 160 Control of Glandular Secretions and the Homeostatic Role of the Integument 160 5-9 ◗ Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect the tips of fingers and toes 160 5-10 ◗ Several steps are involved in repairing the integument following an injury 161 5-11 ◗ Effects of aging include dermal thinning, wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity 164 Chapter Review 166 Clinical Notes Skin Cancer 151 Decubitis Ulcers 154 Liposuction 155 Burns and Grafts 163 Skin Abnormalities 164 6 Osseous Tissue and Bone Structure 169 ◗ An Introduction to the Skeletal System 170 6-1 ◗ The skeletal system has five primary functions 170 6-2 ◗ Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and feature surface markings 170 Bone Shapes 170 Bone Markings 171 Bone Structure 171
xXx Contents 6-3) Bone is composed of matrix and several types of cells: 7-6) The vertebral column has four spinal curves 217 osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and Spinal curvature 217 osteoclasts 17 Vertebral Anatomy 217 Bone matrix 174 Bone cells 174 7-7) The five vertebral regions are the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal 220 6-4) Compact bone contains parallel osteons, and spongy Cervical vertebrae 220 bone contains trabeculae 175 Thoracic Vertebrae 222 Compact Bone Structure 175 Lumbar Vertebrae 222 Spongy Bone Structure 177 The Sacrum 223 The Periosteum and Endosteum 178 The Coccyx 225 6-5) Bones form through ossification and they enlarge 7-8) The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and through appositional growth and remodeling 179 provides sites for muscle attachment 225 Endochondral Ossification 179 The Ribs 225 Intramembranous ossification 182 The sternum 228 The Blood and Nerve Supplies to Bone 182 Chapter Review 229 6-6) Bone growth and development depend on a balance Clinical notes between bone formation and bone resorption 18 Temporomandibular Joint Syndrome 212 6-7) Exercise, hormones, and nutrition affect bone Craniostenosis 216 development and the skeletal system 184 Kyphosis, Lordosis, and Scoliosis 218 The Effects of exercise on bone Hormonal and Nutritional Effects on Bone 185 6-8) Calcium plays a critical role in bone physiology 186 The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve 186 The Appendicular Hormones and Calcium Balance 187 % Skeleton 232 A fracture is a crack or break in a bone 189 6-10) Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging skeletal D An Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton 233 tissue 192 8-1 The pectoral girdle attaches to the upper limbs and Chapter Review 193 consists of the clavicles and scapulae 233 Clinical Notes The Clavicles 233 Heterotopic Bone Formation 179 The Scapulae 233 Abnormal Bone Development 1 8-2) The upper limbs are adapted for freedom of Spotlight movement 236 Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair 190 The Humerus 236 The Ulna 236 The Radius 239 The Axial Skeleton 197 The Carpal Bones 239 The Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges 240 8-3) The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs and D An Introduction to the Axial Skeleton 198 consists of two coxal bones 240 7-1 The 80 bones of the head and trunk make up the axial The Pelvic Girdle 240 skeleton 198 The pelvis 24 7-2D The skull is composed of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial 8-4) The lower limbs are adapted for locomotion and bones 198 support 244 7-3 Foramina and fissures of the skull serve as The femur 244 passageways for nerves and vessels 212 The Patella 245 7-4 Each orbital complex contains an eye, and the nasal The Tibia 245 complex encloses the nasal cavities 214 The fibula 246 The Orbital Complexes 214 The Nasal Complex 214 The Metatarsal Bones and Phalanges 248 7-5D Fontanelles are non-ossified areas between cranial 8-5) Sex differences and age account for individual skeletal bones that allow for brain growth 215 variation 248
xxx Contents 6-3 ◗ Bone is composed of matrix and several types of cells: osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoclasts 173 Bone Matrix 174 Bone Cells 174 6-4 ◗ Compact bone contains parallel osteons, and spongy bone contains trabeculae 175 Compact Bone Structure 175 Spongy Bone Structure 177 The Periosteum and Endosteum 178 6-5 ◗ Bones form through ossification and they enlarge through appositional growth and remodeling 179 Endochondral Ossification 179 Intramembranous Ossification 182 The Blood and Nerve Supplies to Bone 182 6-6 ◗ Bone growth and development depend on a balance between bone formation and bone resorption 184 6-7 ◗ Exercise, hormones, and nutrition affect bone development and the skeletal system 184 The Effects of Exercise on Bone 184 Hormonal and Nutritional Effects on Bone 185 6-8 ◗ Calcium plays a critical role in bone physiology 186 The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve 186 Hormones and Calcium Balance 187 6-9 ◗ A fracture is a crack or break in a bone 189 6-10 ◗ Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging skeletal tissue 192 Chapter Review 193 Clinical Notes Heterotopic Bone Formation 179 Abnormal Bone Development 186 Spotlight Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair 190 7-6 ◗ The vertebral column has four spinal curves 217 Spinal Curvature 217 Vertebral Anatomy 217 7-7 ◗ The five vertebral regions are the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal 220 Cervical Vertebrae 220 Thoracic Vertebrae 222 Lumbar Vertebrae 222 The Sacrum 223 The Coccyx 225 7-8 ◗ The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment 225 The Ribs 225 The Sternum 228 Chapter Review 229 Clinical Notes Temporomandibular Joint Syndrome 212 Craniostenosis 216 Kyphosis, Lordosis, and Scoliosis 218 7 The Axial Skeleton 197 ◗ An Introduction to the Axial Skeleton 198 7-1 ◗ The 80 bones of the head and trunk make up the axial skeleton 198 7-2 ◗ The skull is composed of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones 198 7-3 ◗ Foramina and fissures of the skull serve as passageways for nerves and vessels 212 7-4 ◗ Each orbital complex contains an eye, and the nasal complex encloses the nasal cavities 214 The Orbital Complexes 214 The Nasal Complex 214 7-5 ◗ Fontanelles are non-ossified areas between cranial bones that allow for brain growth 215 8 The Appendicular Skeleton 232 ◗ An Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton 233 8-1 ◗ The pectoral girdle attaches to the upper limbs and consists of the clavicles and scapulae 233 The Clavicles 233 The Scapulae 233 8-2 ◗ The upper limbs are adapted for freedom of movement 236 The Humerus 236 The Ulna 236 The Radius 239 The Carpal Bones 239 The Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges 240 8-3 ◗ The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs and consists of two coxal bones 240 The Pelvic Girdle 240 The Pelvis 242 8-4 ◗ The lower limbs are adapted for locomotion and support 244 The Femur 244 The Patella 245 The Tibia 245 The Fibula 246 The Tarsal Bones 247 The Metatarsal Bones and Phalanges 248 8-5 ◗ Sex differences and age account for individual skeletal variation 248
ontents xXXI Chapter Review 250 Clinical Notes Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 240 10 Muscle Tissue 279 Congenital Talipes Equinovarus 248 D An Introduction to muscle tissue 280 Articulations 253 10-1 Skeletal muscle performs six major functions 280 10-2 A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves 280 D An Introduction to Articulations 254 Organization of Connective Tissues 280 9-1 Joints are categorized according to their range of Blood Vessels and Nerves 281 10-3 Skeletal muscle fibers have distinctive features 282 9-2) Synovial joints are freely movable articulations The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules 283 containing synovial fluid 254 Myofibrils 283 Articular Cartilages 254 The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 284 Synovial Fluid 256 Accessory Structures 256 Sliding Filaments and Muscle Contraction 287 Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints 257 10-4) The nervous system communicates with skeletal 9-3) Anatomical and functional properties of synovial muscles at the neuromuscular junction 290 joints enable various skeletal movements 258 The Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity 290 Describing Movement 258 Excitation-Contraction Coupling 290 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 259 Relaxation 296 Types of Synovial Joints 261 10-5) Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation 9-4) Intervertebral discs and ligaments are structural produce tension 298 components of intervertebral articulations 264 Tension Production by Muscle Fibers 298 ntervertebral Discs 264 Tension Production by Skeletal Muscles 300 Intervertebral Ligaments 265 Motor units and tension production 300 Vertebral Movements 265 10-6) ATP provides energy for muscle contraction 305 9-5) The shoulder is a ball-and-socket joint, and the elbow ATP and CP Reserves 305 is a hinge joint 266 ATP Generation 305 The Shoulder Joint 266 nergy Use and the Level of Muscular Activity 306 The Elbow Joint 268 Muscle Fatigue 307 9-6 The hip is a ball-and-socket joint and the knee is a The Recovery Period 308 hinge join Hormones and Muscle metabolism 308 The Hip Joint 269 10-7 Muscle performance capabilities depend on m The Knee joint 270 fiber type and physical conditioning 309 9-7 With advancing age, arthritis and other degenerative Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 309 Muscle performance and the Distribution of muscle Fibers 310 9-8) The skeletal system supports and stores energy and minerals for other body systems 274 Muscle Hypertrophy and Atrophy 311 Chapter Review 276 Physical Conditioning 311 Clinical Notes 10-8) Cardiac muscle tissue differs structurally ursitis and Bunions 257 functionally from skeletal muscle tissue 313 Knee Injuries 273 Structural Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle tissue 313 Spotlight Functional characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 314 Synovial Joints 26 10-9 Smooth muscle tissue differs structurally and functionally from skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue 314 Structural Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 315
Contents xxxi 9 Articulations 253 ◗ An Introduction to Articulations 254 9-1 ◗ Joints are categorized according to their range of motion or anatomical organization 254 9-2 ◗ Synovial joints are freely movable articulations containing synovial fluid 254 Articular Cartilages 254 Synovial Fluid 256 Accessory Structures 256 Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints 257 9-3 ◗ Anatomical and functional properties of synovial joints enable various skeletal movements 258 Describing Movement 258 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 259 Types of Synovial Joints 261 9-4 ◗ Intervertebral discs and ligaments are structural components of intervertebral articulations 264 Intervertebral Discs 264 Intervertebral Ligaments 265 Vertebral Movements 265 9-5 ◗ The shoulder is a ball-and-socket joint, and the elbow is a hinge joint 266 The Shoulder Joint 266 The Elbow Joint 268 9-6 ◗ The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, and the knee is a hinge joint 269 The Hip Joint 269 The Knee Joint 270 9-7 ◗ With advancing age, arthritis and other degenerative changes impair joint mobility 273 9-8 ◗ The skeletal system supports and stores energy and minerals for other body systems 274 Chapter Review 276 Clinical Notes Bursitis and Bunions 257 Knee Injuries 273 Spotlight Synovial Joints 263 Chapter Review 250 Clinical Notes Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 240 Congenital Talipes Equinovarus 248 10 Muscle Tissue 279 ◗ An Introduction to Muscle Tissue 280 10-1 ◗ Skeletal muscle performs six major functions 280 10-2 ◗ A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves 280 Organization of Connective Tissues 280 Blood Vessels and Nerves 281 10-3 ◗ Skeletal muscle fibers have distinctive features 282 The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules 283 Myofibrils 283 The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 284 Sarcomeres 284 Sliding Filaments and Muscle Contraction 287 10-4 ◗ The nervous system communicates with skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction 290 The Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity 290 Excitation–Contraction Coupling 290 Relaxation 296 10-5 ◗ Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation produce tension 298 Tension Production by Muscle Fibers 298 Tension Production by Skeletal Muscles 300 Motor Units and Tension Production 300 10-6 ◗ ATP provides energy for muscle contraction 305 ATP and CP Reserves 305 ATP Generation 305 Energy Use and the Level of Muscular Activity 306 Muscle Fatigue 307 The Recovery Period 308 Hormones and Muscle Metabolism 308 10-7 ◗ Muscle performance capabilities depend on muscle fiber type and physical conditioning 309 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 309 Muscle Performance and the Distribution of Muscle Fibers 310 Muscle Hypertrophy and Atrophy 311 Physical Conditioning 311 10-8 ◗ Cardiac muscle tissue differs structurally and functionally from skeletal muscle tissue 313 Structural Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 313 Functional Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 314 10-9 ◗ Smooth muscle tissue differs structurally and functionally from skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue 314 Structural Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 315 Functional Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 316
xxXi Contents Chapter Review 317 Chapter Review 370 Clinical Notes Clinical Notes etanus 291 344 Rigor Mortis 296 Intramuscular Injections 345 Delayed-Onset Muscle Sore Spotlights Skeletal Muscle Innervation 292 UNIT 3 CONTROL AND REGULATION The Contraction Cycle 294 Neural Tissue 374 The Muscular System 322 D An Introduction to Neural Tissue 375 D An Introduction to the Muscular System 323 12-1 The nervous system has anatomical and functional 11-1 Fascicle arrangement is correlated with muscle powe and range of motion 323 The Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System 375 Parallel Muscles 324 The Functional Divisions of the Nervous System 375 Convergent Muscles 324 12-2 Neurons are nerve cells specialized for intercellular Pennate muscles 324 communication 376 Circular Muscles 324 The Structure of neurons 376 11-2) The three classes of levers increase muscle efficiency 324 12-3 CNS and PNS neuroglia support and protect 11-3) Muscle origins are at the fixed end of muscles neurons 380 whereas insertions are at the movable end of Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System 380 muscles 326 Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System 383 Origins and Insertions 326 Neural Responses to Injuries 385 Actions 326 12-4) The transmembrane potential is the electrical 11-4) Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal potential of the cells interior relative to its surroundings 386 Location in the body 327 The Transmembrane potential 387 Origin and Insertion 328 Changes in the Transmembrane Potential 390 Fascicle Organization 328 Graded Potentials 391 Position 329 12-5) An action potential is an electrical event 394 Structural Characteristics 32( The All-or-None Principle 394 Action 329 Generation of Action potentials 39 Axial and Appendicular Muscles 329 Propagation of Action Potentials 395 11-5) Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck 12-6) Axon diameter, in addition to myelin, affects vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor 332 Muscles of the head and Neck 332 12-7) At synapses, communication occurs among neurons Muscles of the vertebral Column 339 or between neurons and other cells 400 oblique and Rectus Muscles 342 Muscles of the pelvic floor 345 General Properties of Synapses 400 11-6) Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs 347 12-8 Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators have various Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs 35 Muscles of the pelvis and Lower limbs 359 The Activities of other Neurotransmitters 403 11-7) With advancing age, the size and power of muscle Neuromodulators 404 How Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators 11-8) Exercise produces responses in multiple body Work 40
xxxii Contents Chapter Review 317 Clinical Notes Tetanus 291 Rigor Mortis 296 Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness 312 Spotlights Skeletal Muscle Innervation 292 The Contraction Cycle 294 Chapter Review 370 Clinical Notes Hernia 344 Intramuscular Injections 345 UNIT 3 CONTROL AND REGULATION 11 The Muscular System 322 ◗ An Introduction to the Muscular System 323 11-1 ◗ Fascicle arrangement is correlated with muscle power and range of motion 323 Parallel Muscles 324 Convergent Muscles 324 Pennate Muscles 324 Circular Muscles 324 11-2 ◗ The three classes of levers increase muscle efficiency 324 11-3 ◗ Muscle origins are at the fixed end of muscles, whereas insertions are at the movable end of muscles 326 Origins and Insertions 326 Actions 326 11-4 ◗ Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal muscles 327 Location in the Body 327 Origin and Insertion 328 Fascicle Organization 328 Position 329 Structural Characteristics 329 Action 329 Axial and Appendicular Muscles 329 11-5 ◗ Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck, vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor 332 Muscles of the Head and Neck 332 Muscles of the Vertebral Column 339 Oblique and Rectus Muscles 342 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor 345 11-6 ◗ Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs 347 Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs 350 Muscles of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 359 11-7 ◗ With advancing age, the size and power of muscle tissue decrease 368 11-8 ◗ Exercise produces responses in multiple body systems 368 12 Neural Tissue 374 ◗ An Introduction to Neural Tissue 375 12-1 ◗ The nervous system has anatomical and functional divisions 375 The Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System 375 The Functional Divisions of the Nervous System 375 12-2 ◗ Neurons are nerve cells specialized for intercellular communication 376 The Structure of Neurons 376 The Classification of Neurons 378 12-3 ◗ CNS and PNS neuroglia support and protect neurons 380 Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System 380 Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System 383 Neural Responses to Injuries 385 12-4 ◗ The transmembrane potential is the electrical potential of the cell’s interior relative to its surroundings 386 The Transmembrane Potential 387 Changes in the Transmembrane Potential 390 Graded Potentials 391 12-5 ◗ An action potential is an electrical event 394 The All-or-None Principle 394 Generation of Action Potentials 394 Propagation of Action Potentials 395 12-6 ◗ Axon diameter, in addition to myelin, affects propagation speed 400 12-7 ◗ At synapses, communication occurs among neurons or between neurons and other cells 400 Synaptic Activity 400 General Properties of Synapses 400 Cholinergic Synapses 401 12-8 ◗ Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators have various functions 403 The Activities of Other Neurotransmitters 403 Neuromodulators 404 How Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Work 405