12-9) Individual neurons process information by integrating Clinical Notes excitatory and inhibitory stimuli 408 Anesthesia 422 Postsynaptic Potentia ingles 428 Presynaptic Inhibition and Presynaptic Facilitation 410 Spotlight The Rate of Generation of Action potentials 410 Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves 426 Chapter Review 412 Clinical notes Tumors 3 Demyelination 38 The brain and cranial Spotlight Generation of an Action Potential 396 Nerves 448 D An Introduction to the brain and Cranial Nerves 449 14-1 The brain has several principal structures, each with The Spinal Cord, Spinal specific functions s9 erves, and Spinal Major Brain Regions and Landmarks 449 Embryology of the Brain 450 Ventricles of the brain 451 D An Introduction to the Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 417 14-2) The brain is protected and supported by the cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain 13-1 The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, and the cranial nerves and spinal The Cranial Meninges 452 nerves constitute the peripheral nervous system 417 Cerebrospinal Fluid 453 13-2) The spinal cord is surrounded by three meninges and The Blood Supply to the Brain 454 conveys sensory and motor information 418 14-3) The medulla oblongata, which is continuous with the Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 418 spinal cord, contains vital centers 456 14-4) The pons contains nuclei and tracts that carry or relay 13-3) Gray matter is the region of integration and command initiation and white matter carries information from place to place 422 14-5) The cerebellum coordinates learned and reflexive patterns of muscular activity at the subconscious Organization of Gray Matter 422 Organization of White Matter 424 14-6 The midbrain regulates auditory and visual reflexes 13-4) Spinal nerves form plexuses that are na according and controls alertness 460 to their level of emergence from the vertebral canal 424 14-7) The diencephalon integrates sensory information Anatomy of Spinal Nerves 424 with motor output at the subconscious level 463 Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves 424 The thalamus Nerve Plexuses 425 13-5) Neuronal pools are functional groups of 14-8 The limbic system is a group of tracts and nuclei with various functions 466 13-6) Reflexes are rapid automatic responses to 14-9) The cerebrum, the largest region of the brain contains motor, sensory, and association areas 468 The Reflex arc 436 The Cerebral Cortex 468 Classification of Reflexes 437 The White Matter of the Cerebrum 468 13-7) Spinal reflexes vary in complexity 438 Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex 472 Monosynaptic Reflexes 438 14-10D Cranial reflexes involve sensory and motor fibers of 13-8) The brain can affect spinal cord-based reflexes 442 Chapter Review 490 Voluntary Movements and Reflex Motor Patterns 442 Clinical Notes Reinforcement and Inhibition 443 pidural and Subdural Hemorrhages 454 Chapter Review 444 Disconnection Syndrome 474 Aphasia and Dyslexia 476
Contents xxxiii 12-9 ◗ Individual neurons process information by integrating excitatory and inhibitory stimuli 408 Postsynaptic Potentials 408 Presynaptic Inhibition and Presynaptic Facilitation 410 The Rate of Generation of Action Potentials 410 Chapter Review 412 Clinical Notes Rabies 378 Tumors 381 Demyelination 383 Spotlight Generation of an Action Potential 396 13 The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 416 ◗ An Introduction to the Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 417 13-1 ◗ The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, and the cranial nerves and spinal nerves constitute the peripheral nervous system 417 13-2 ◗ The spinal cord is surrounded by three meninges and conveys sensory and motor information 418 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 418 Spinal Meninges 420 13-3 ◗ Gray matter is the region of integration and command initiation, and white matter carries information from place to place 422 Organization of Gray Matter 422 Organization of White Matter 424 13-4 ◗ Spinal nerves form plexuses that are named according to their level of emergence from the vertebral canal 424 Anatomy of Spinal Nerves 424 Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves 424 Nerve Plexuses 425 13-5 ◗ Neuronal pools are functional groups of interconnected neurons 434 13-6 ◗ Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli 436 The Reflex Arc 436 Classification of Reflexes 437 13-7 ◗ Spinal reflexes vary in complexity 438 Monosynaptic Reflexes 438 Polysynaptic Reflexes 440 13-8 ◗ The brain can affect spinal cord–based reflexes 442 Voluntary Movements and Reflex Motor Patterns 442 Reinforcement and Inhibition 443 Chapter Review 444 Clinical Notes Anesthesia 422 Shingles 428 Spotlight Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves 426 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 448 ◗ An Introduction to the Brain and Cranial Nerves 449 14-1 ◗ The brain has several principal structures, each with specific functions 449 Major Brain Regions and Landmarks 449 Embryology of the Brain 450 Ventricles of the Brain 451 14-2 ◗ The brain is protected and supported by the cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood–brain barrier 452 The Cranial Meninges 452 Cerebrospinal Fluid 453 The Blood Supply to the Brain 454 14-3 ◗ The medulla oblongata, which is continuous with the spinal cord, contains vital centers 456 14-4 ◗ The pons contains nuclei and tracts that carry or relay sensory and motor information 459 14-5 ◗ The cerebellum coordinates learned and reflexive patterns of muscular activity at the subconscious level 460 14-6 ◗ The midbrain regulates auditory and visual reflexes and controls alertness 460 14-7 ◗ The diencephalon integrates sensory information with motor output at the subconscious level 463 The Thalamus 463 The Hypothalamus 464 14-8 ◗ The limbic system is a group of tracts and nuclei with various functions 466 14-9 ◗ The cerebrum, the largest region of the brain, contains motor, sensory, and association areas 468 The Cerebral Cortex 468 The White Matter of the Cerebrum 468 The Basal Nuclei 470 Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex 472 14-10 ◗ Cranial reflexes involve sensory and motor fibers of cranial nerves 489 Chapter Review 490 Clinical Notes Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages 454 Disconnection Syndrome 474 Aphasia and Dyslexia 476
xxxiv Contents Neural Integration I: Sensory 16-2) The sympathetic division consists of preganglionic and ganglionic neurons involved in using Pathways and the Somatic energy and increasing metabolic rate 519 Nervous System 494 Organization and Anatomy of the Sympathetic D An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Sympathetic Activation 522 16-3) Stimulation of sympathetic neurons leads to the 15-1 Sensory information from all parts of the body is release of various neurotransmitters 524 routed to the somatosensory cortex 495 Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of NE 15-2) Sensory receptors connect our internal and external and E 525 environments with the nervous system 495 Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of Ach The Detection of stimuli 496 and NO 525 The Interpretation of Sensory Information 497 Summary: The Sympathetic Division 52 16-4) The paras hetic division consists of 15-3 General sensory receptors are classified by the type of preganglionic neurons and ganglionic neurons stimulus that excites them 498 involved in conserving energy and lowering metabolic rate 526 Nociceptors 498 Organization and Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Thermoreceptors 49 Division 526 Mechanoreceptors 499 Parasympathetic Activation 526 16-5) Stimulation of parasympathetic neurons leads to the 15-4) Separate pathways carry somatic sensory and visceral release of the neurotransmitter Ach 529 sensory information 502 Neurotransmitter release 529 Somatic Sensory Pathways 503 Membrane receptors and Responses 529 Visceral Sensory Pathways 508 15-5) The somatic nervous system is an efferent division that controls skeletal muscles 508 16-6) The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions interact, creating dual innervation 530 The Corticospinal Pathway 509 Anatomy of Dual Innervation 531 The Medial and Lateral Pathways 510 Autonomic Tone 531 The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum 511 Levels of Processing and Motor Control 512 16-7) Visceral reflexes play a role in the integration and Chapter Review 513 control of autonomic functions 534 Clinical Notes isceral Reflexes 534 Assessment of Tactile Sensitivities 502 Higher Levels of Autonomic Control 535 Cerebral Palsy 510 The Integration of SNS and ANS Activities 535 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 512 16-8) Higher-order functions include memory and states of Anencephaly 512 consciousness 536 Spotlight Memory 536 Somatic Sensory Pathways 504 States of Consciousness 539 16-9) Neurotransmitters influence brain chemistry and Neural Integration II: The 16 Autonomic Nervous System 16-10) Aging produces various structural and functional and Higher-Order changes in the nervous system 541 Chapter Review 544 Functions 516 Clinical Note D An Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System and Amnesia 538 Higher-Order Functions 517 categorizing Nervous System Disorders 540 Alzheimer's Disease 542 16-1 The autonomic nervous system is involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral functions and has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions 517 Organization of the ANS 517 Divisions of the ans 518
xxxiv Contents 15 Neural Integration I: Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System 494 ◗ An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System 495 15-1 ◗ Sensory information from all parts of the body is routed to the somatosensory cortex 495 15-2 ◗ Sensory receptors connect our internal and external environments with the nervous system 495 The Detection of Stimuli 496 The Interpretation of Sensory Information 497 Adaptation 497 15-3 ◗ General sensory receptors are classified by the type of stimulus that excites them 498 Nociceptors 498 Thermoreceptors 499 Mechanoreceptors 499 Chemoreceptors 502 15-4 ◗ Separate pathways carry somatic sensory and visceral sensory information 502 Somatic Sensory Pathways 503 Visceral Sensory Pathways 508 15-5 ◗ The somatic nervous system is an efferent division that controls skeletal muscles 508 The Corticospinal Pathway 509 The Medial and Lateral Pathways 510 The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum 511 Levels of Processing and Motor Control 512 Chapter Review 513 Clinical Notes Assessment of Tactile Sensitivities 502 Cerebral Palsy 510 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 512 Anencephaly 512 Spotlight Somatic Sensory Pathways 504 16 Neural Integration II: The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions 516 ◗ An Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions 517 16-1 ◗ The autonomic nervous system is involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral functions and has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions 517 Organization of the ANS 517 Divisions of the ANS 518 16-2 ◗ The sympathetic division consists of preganglionic neurons and ganglionic neurons involved in using energy and increasing metabolic rate 519 Organization and Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division 520 Sympathetic Activation 522 16-3 ◗ Stimulation of sympathetic neurons leads to the release of various neurotransmitters 524 Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of NE and E 525 Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of ACh and NO 525 Summary: The Sympathetic Division 525 16-4 ◗ The parasympathetic division consists of preganglionic neurons and ganglionic neurons involved in conserving energy and lowering metabolic rate 526 Organization and Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division 526 Parasympathetic Activation 526 16-5 ◗ Stimulation of parasympathetic neurons leads to the release of the neurotransmitter ACh 529 Neurotransmitter Release 529 Membrane Receptors and Responses 529 Summary: The Parasympathetic Division 529 16-6 ◗ The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions interact, creating dual innervation 530 Anatomy of Dual Innervation 531 Autonomic Tone 531 16-7 ◗ Visceral reflexes play a role in the integration and control of autonomic functions 534 Visceral Reflexes 534 Higher Levels of Autonomic Control 535 The Integration of SNS and ANS Activities 535 16-8 ◗ Higher-order functions include memory and states of consciousness 536 Memory 536 States of Consciousness 539 16-9 ◗ Neurotransmitters influence brain chemistry and behavior 541 16-10 ◗ Aging produces various structural and functional changes in the nervous system 541 Chapter Review 544 Clinical Notes Amnesia 538 Categorizing Nervous System Disorders 540 Alzheimer’s Disease 542
Contents xxXv Secretion and Distribution of Hormones 596 Mechanisms of he ormone The Special Senses 548 Control of Endocrine Activity by Endocrine 18-3) The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ that D An Introduction to the Special Senses 549 releases nine peptide hormones 60 17-1 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 603 receptors responding to chemical stimuli 549 The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 607 lfactory Receptors 550 Summary: The Hormones of the Pituitary Gland 608 Olfactory Pathways 550 18-4 The thyroid gland lies inferior to the larynx and requires iodine for hormone synthesis 609 17-2) Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste receptors hyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones 609 responding to chemical stimuli 551 Functions of Thyroid Hormones 613 Taste Receptors 551 The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin 613 Gustatory Pathways 55 18-5) The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the Gustatory Discrimination 551 posterior surface of the thyroid gland, secrete 17-3) Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while parathyroid hormone to elevate plasma Ca2+614 accessory eye structures provide protection 18-6 The adrenal glands, consisting of a cortex and Accessory Structures of the Eye 555 medulla, cap the kidneys and secrete severa The Eye 556 hormones 615 17-4 Photoreceptors respond to light and change it into The Adrenal Cortex 616 electrical signals essential to visual physiology 565 The Adrenal Medulla 618 Visual Physiology 565 18-7) The pineal gland, attached to the roof of the third The Visual Pathways 572 ventricle, secretes melatonin 619 17-5 Equilibrium sensations originate within the internal 18-8) The pancreas, located in the abdominopelvic cavity, is ear, while hearing involves the detection and both an exocrine organ and endocrine gland 620 interpretation of sound waves 574 The Pancreatic Islets 620 Anatomy of the Ear 574 Insulin 621 quilibrium 577 Glucagon 621 18-9) Many organs have secondary endocrine functions 624 Clinical Notes The Intestines 624 Diabetic Retinopathy 559 The Kidneys 624 Detached Retina 561 The Heart 626 Glaucoma 562 Motion Sickness 578 The Thymus 626 Spotlights The Gonads 626 Olfactory and Gustatory Receptors 552 Adipose Tissue 628 Accommodation Problems 566 18-10) Hormones interact to produce coordinated hysiological responses 628 Role of hormones in growth 628 The Hormonal Responses to Stress 630 The Effects of Hormones on behavior 630 18- The Endocrine System 593 Aging and Hormone Production 630 Chapter Review 633 Clinical Notes D An Introduction to the Endocrine System 594 Endocrine Disorders 627 18-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular Hormones and Athletic Performance 629 Spotlights 18-2) The endocrine system regulates physiological Structural Classification of Hormones 598 rocesses through the binding of hormones to abetes mellitus 623 receptors 596 The General Adaptation Syndrome 631 Classes of Hormones 596
Contents xxxv 18 The Endocrine System 593 ◗ An Introduction to the Endocrine System 594 18-1 ◗ Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular communication 594 18-2 ◗ The endocrine system regulates physiological processes through the binding of hormones to receptors 596 Classes of Hormones 596 17 The Special Senses 548 ◗ An Introduction to the Special Senses 549 17-1 ◗ Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory receptors responding to chemical stimuli 549 Olfactory Receptors 550 Olfactory Pathways 550 Olfactory Discrimination 550 17-2 ◗ Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste receptors responding to chemical stimuli 551 Taste Receptors 551 Gustatory Pathways 551 Gustatory Discrimination 551 17-3 ◗ Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while accessory eye structures provide protection 555 Accessory Structures of the Eye 555 The Eye 556 17-4 ◗ Photoreceptors respond to light and change it into electrical signals essential to visual physiology 565 Visual Physiology 565 The Visual Pathways 572 17-5 ◗ Equilibrium sensations originate within the internal ear, while hearing involves the detection and interpretation of sound waves 574 Anatomy of the Ear 574 Equilibrium 577 Hearing 581 Chapter Review 589 Clinical Notes Diabetic Retinopathy 559 Detached Retina 561 Glaucoma 562 Motion Sickness 578 Spotlights Olfactory and Gustatory Receptors 552 Accommodation Problems 566 Photoreception 570 Secretion and Distribution of Hormones 596 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 597 Control of Endocrine Activity by Endocrine Reflexes 602 18-3 ◗ The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ that releases nine peptide hormones 603 The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 603 The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 607 Summary: The Hormones of the Pituitary Gland 608 18-4 ◗ The thyroid gland lies inferior to the larynx and requires iodine for hormone synthesis 609 Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones 609 Functions of Thyroid Hormones 613 The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin 613 18-5 ◗ The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone to elevate plasma Ca2+ 614 18-6 ◗ The adrenal glands, consisting of a cortex and medulla, cap the kidneys and secrete several hormones 615 The Adrenal Cortex 616 The Adrenal Medulla 618 18-7 ◗ The pineal gland, attached to the roof of the third ventricle, secretes melatonin 619 18-8 ◗ The pancreas, located in the abdominopelvic cavity, is both an exocrine organ and endocrine gland 620 The Pancreatic Islets 620 Insulin 621 Glucagon 621 18-9 ◗ Many organs have secondary endocrine functions 624 The Intestines 624 The Kidneys 624 The Heart 626 The Thymus 626 The Gonads 626 Adipose Tissue 628 18-10 ◗ Hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses 628 Role of Hormones in Growth 628 The Hormonal Responses to Stress 630 The Effects of Hormones on Behavior 630 Aging and Hormone Production 630 Chapter Review 633 Clinical Notes Diabetes Insipidus 608 Endocrine Disorders 627 Hormones and Athletic Performance 629 Spotlights Structural Classification of Hormones 598 Diabetes Mellitus 623 The General Adaptation Syndrome 631
xxXVi Contents UNIT 4 FLUIDS AND TRANSPORT 20 The heart 669 Blood 638 D An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 670 20-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by the coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-poor blood D An Introduction to Blood and the Cardiovascular System 6 to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest 670 The Pericardium 670 19-1) Blood has several important functions and unique physical characteristics 639 Superficial Anatomy of the Heart 672 The heart wall 672 19-2) Plasma, the fluid portion of blood contains significant quantities of plasma proteins 642 ernal Anatomy and Organization 672 Connective Tissues and the Cardiac Skeleton 678 The Composition of Plasma 642 19-3) Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain 20-2) The conducting system distributes electrical impu hemoglobin that can be recycled 643 through the heart, and an electrocardiogram reco the associated electrical events 684 Abundance of rBcs 643 Cardiac Physiology 684 Structure of rBCs 643 The Conducting System 684 Hemoglobin 644 RB Formation and turnover 645 The Electrocardiogram 687 Contractile cells 688 RBC Production 64 20-3 Events during a complete heartbeat constitute a 19-4 The abo blood types and Rh system are based on cardiac cycle 691 antigen-antibody responses 650 Phases of the Cardiac Cycle 691 Cross-Reactions in Transfusions 650 Pressure and Volume Changes in the Cardiac Cycle 692 Testing for Transfusion Compatibility 650 19-5) The various types of white blood cells contribute to the body' s defenses 652 20-4 Cardiodynamics examines the factors that affect cardiac output 695 WBC Circulation and Movement 653 Overview: Factors Affecting Cardiac Output 697 Types of WBCs 653 Factors Affecting the Heart Rate 697 The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles 657 Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume 699 WBC Production 657 Summary: The Control of Cardiac Output 701 The Heart and the Cardiovascular System 702 19-6 Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from Chapter Review 704 megakaryocytes, function in the clotting Clinical note rocess Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac Output 697 Platelet Functions 660 Spotlights Platelet Production 660 Heart Disease and Heart Attacks 682 19-7) Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug Cardiac Arrhythmias 689 formation, and blood coagulation 661 The vascular phase 661 The platelet Phase 661 The Coagulation Phase 662 Blood vessels and Fibrinolysis 665 Circulation 707 Chapter Review 666 Clinical Notes D An Introduction to blood Vessels and Circulation 708 Collecting Blood for Analysis 639 Plasma Expanders 643 21-1 Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins Abnormal Hemoglobin 646 differ in size, structure, and functional properties 708 The structure of vessel walls 708 The Composition of Whole Blood 640 Hemolytic Disease of the Newbom 654 Differences between Arteries and veins 709 Arteries 710
xxxvi Contents 19 Blood 638 ◗ An Introduction to Blood and the Cardiovascular System 639 19-1 ◗ Blood has several important functions and unique physical characteristics 639 19-2 ◗ Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, contains significant quantities of plasma proteins 642 The Composition of Plasma 642 Plasma Proteins 642 19-3 ◗ Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain hemoglobin that can be recycled 643 Abundance of RBCs 643 Structure of RBCs 643 Hemoglobin 644 RBC Formation and Turnover 645 RBC Production 648 19-4 ◗ The ABO blood types and Rh system are based on antigen–antibody responses 650 Cross-Reactions in Transfusions 650 Testing for Transfusion Compatibility 650 19-5 ◗ The various types of white blood cells contribute to the body’s defenses 652 WBC Circulation and Movement 653 Types of WBCs 653 The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles 657 WBC Production 657 19-6 ◗ Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from megakaryocytes, function in the clotting process 660 Platelet Functions 660 Platelet Production 660 19-7 ◗ Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation 661 The Vascular Phase 661 The Platelet Phase 661 The Coagulation Phase 662 Fibrinolysis 665 Chapter Review 666 Clinical Notes Collecting Blood for Analysis 639 Plasma Expanders 643 Abnormal Hemoglobin 646 Spotlights The Composition of Whole Blood 640 Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 654 UNIT 4 FLUIDS AND TRANSPORT 20 The Heart 669 ◗ An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 670 20-1 ◗ The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by the coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest 670 The Pericardium 670 Superficial Anatomy of the Heart 672 The Heart Wall 672 Internal Anatomy and Organization 672 Connective Tissues and the Cardiac Skeleton 678 The Blood Supply to the Heart 680 20-2 ◗ The conducting system distributes electrical impulses through the heart, and an electrocardiogram records the associated electrical events 684 Cardiac Physiology 684 The Conducting System 684 The Electrocardiogram 687 Contractile Cells 688 20-3 ◗ Events during a complete heartbeat constitute a cardiac cycle 691 Phases of the Cardiac Cycle 691 Pressure and Volume Changes in the Cardiac Cycle 692 Heart Sounds 693 20-4 ◗ Cardiodynamics examines the factors that affect cardiac output 695 Overview: Factors Affecting Cardiac Output 697 Factors Affecting the Heart Rate 697 Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume 699 Summary: The Control of Cardiac Output 701 The Heart and the Cardiovascular System 702 Chapter Review 704 Clinical Note Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac Output 697 Spotlights Heart Disease and Heart Attacks 682 Cardiac Arrhythmias 689 21 Blood Vessels and Circulation 707 ◗ An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation 708 21-1 ◗ Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins differ in size, structure, and functional properties 708 The Structure of Vessel Walls 708 Differences between Arteries and Veins 709 Arteries 710
Contents xxxvii Capillaries 711 Veins 715 The Distribution of Blood 716 22 The Lymphatic System and 21-2 Pressure and resistance determine blood flow and Immunity 764 affect rates of capillary exchange 717 Pressure 718 D An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and Immunity 765 Total Peripheral Resistance 718 22-1 Surface barriers and internal defenses constitute An Overview of Cardiovascular Pressures 719 innate defenses, and lymphocytes provide adaptive Capillary Pressures and Capillary Exchange 722 defenses 765 21-3) Cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms involve 22-2) Lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues autoregulation, neural mechanisms, and endocrine and lymphoid organs function in body defenses 765 Functions of the Lymphatic System 765 Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues 726 Neural mechanisms 726 Lymphocytes 768 Hormones and Cardiovascular Regulation 731 Lymphoid Tissues 77 21-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological stress and maintains a special vascular supply to the The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses 776 brain, heart, and lungs 733 The Cardiovascular Response to Exercise 733 22-3) Innate(nonspecific)defenses do not discriminate between potential threats and respond the same The Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhaging 734 regardless of the invader 778 ascular Supply to Special Regions 735 Physical Barriers 778 21-5) The pulmonary and systemic circuits of the Phagocytes 778 cardiovascular system exhibit three general functional Immunological Surveillance 780 patterns 736 Interferons 781 21-6 In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood enters Complement System 782 the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood leaves the ungs via veins 737 21-7) The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to tissues and organs other than the 22-4) Adaptive(specific) defenses respond to individual pulmonary exchange surfaces, and returns reats and are either cell-mediated or antibody- deoxygenated blood to the right atrium 738 Forms of Immunity 785 Systemic Veins 748 Properties of Immunity 786 An Introduction to the Immune Response 787 21-8) Modifications of fetal and maternal cardiovascular systems promote the exchange of materials, an 22-5) T cells play a role in initiating, maintaining, and independence is achieved at birth 755 ontrolling the immune response 787 Placental Blood Supply 755 ntigen Presentation 788 Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels 755 Antigen Recognition 789 Cardiovascular Changes at Bir Activation of cD8 T Cells 790 21-9) Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood Activation of CD4 T Cells 791 vessels 758 22-6 B cells respond to antigens by producing specific ter revi antibodies 792 Clinical Notes B Cell Sensitization and Activation 792 Arteriosclerosis 712 Antibody Structure 793 ema 725 Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Spotlight Exposure 796 Congenital Heart Problems 757 Summary of the Immune Response 797 22-7) Immunological competence enables a normal immune response; abnormal responses result in immune disorders 800 he Development of Immunological Competence 800 Cytokines of the Immune System 800
Contents xxxvii Capillaries 711 Veins 715 The Distribution of Blood 716 21-2 ◗ Pressure and resistance determine blood flow and affect rates of capillary exchange 717 Pressure 718 Total Peripheral Resistance 718 An Overview of Cardiovascular Pressures 719 Capillary Pressures and Capillary Exchange 722 21-3 ◗ Cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms involve autoregulation, neural mechanisms, and endocrine responses 725 Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues 726 Neural Mechanisms 726 Hormones and Cardiovascular Regulation 731 21-4 ◗ The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological stress and maintains a special vascular supply to the brain, heart, and lungs 733 The Cardiovascular Response to Exercise 733 The Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhaging 734 Vascular Supply to Special Regions 735 21-5 ◗ The pulmonary and systemic circuits of the cardiovascular system exhibit three general functional patterns 736 21-6 ◗ In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood enters the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood leaves the lungs via veins 737 21-7 ◗ The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to tissues and organs other than the pulmonary exchange surfaces, and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium 738 Systemic Arteries 738 Systemic Veins 748 21-8 ◗ Modifications of fetal and maternal cardiovascular systems promote the exchange of materials, and independence is achieved at birth 755 Placental Blood Supply 755 Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels 755 Cardiovascular Changes at Birth 756 21-9 ◗ Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood vessels 758 Chapter Review 760 Clinical Notes Arteriosclerosis 712 Edema 725 Spotlight Congenital Heart Problems 757 22 The Lymphatic System and Immunity 764 ◗ An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and Immunity 765 22-1 ◗ Surface barriers and internal defenses constitute innate defenses, and lymphocytes provide adaptive defenses 765 22-2 ◗ Lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues, and lymphoid organs function in body defenses 765 Functions of the Lymphatic System 765 Lymphatic Vessels 766 Lymphocytes 768 Lymphoid Tissues 772 Lymphoid Organs 773 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses 776 22-3 ◗ Innate (nonspecific) defenses do not discriminate between potential threats and respond the same regardless of the invader 778 Physical Barriers 778 Phagocytes 778 Immunological Surveillance 780 Interferons 781 Complement System 782 Inflammation 782 Fever 784 22-4 ◗ Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to individual threats and are either cell-mediated or antibodymediated 785 Forms of Immunity 785 Properties of Immunity 786 An Introduction to the Immune Response 787 22-5 ◗ T cells play a role in initiating, maintaining, and controlling the immune response 787 Antigen Presentation 788 Antigen Recognition 789 Activation of CD8 T Cells 790 Activation of CD4 T Cells 791 22-6 ◗ B cells respond to antigens by producing specific antibodies 792 B Cell Sensitization and Activation 792 Antibody Structure 793 Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure 796 Summary of the Immune Response 797 22-7 ◗ Immunological competence enables a normal immune response; abnormal responses result in immune disorders 800 The Development of Immunological Competence 800 Cytokines of the Immune System 800