xiiCONTENTSPARTTWOPRINCIPLESANDPRACTICES151OFEXPERIMENTALPSYCHOLOGY153CHAPTER6PSYCHOPHYSICSMeasuring Sensations1546.1ExperimentalTopicsandResearchIllustrationsOperational Definition: Thresholds156IntroducingtheVariables1576.2ExperimentalTopicsandResearchllustrationsT169Measurement Scales: Fechner's Law and Stevens'Law6.3ExperimentalTopicsandResearchllustrationsSmall-n Design: Psychophysical Methods174FromProblemtoExperiment:TheNutsandBoltsDo Pigeons Have Visual Thresholds?176Summary177KeyTerms177DiscussionQuestions178WebConnections178Psycbology in Action:Weber's Law178PERCEPTION180CHAPTER7IssuesinPerception181Direct and Indirect Perception181Awareness and Perception183IntroducingtheVariables1867.1 Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsVerbalReport:Perception withoutAwareness1877.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations196Converging Operations: Perception without Awareness and Perception with Explicit AwarenessFrom Problem to Experiment:The Nuts and BoltsThe Color-Distance Ilusion 201Summary204KeyTerms205DiscussionQuestions 205Web Connections 205LaboratoryResource205PsycbologyinAction:Tbe StroopEffect 206CHAPTER8207ATTENTIONANDREACTIONTIMETheABCofReactionTime2088.1Experimental TopicsandResearchIllustrationsConfounding: Pure Insertion 210Introducing theVariables211
xii CONTENTS ▼ PART TWO PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 151 CHAPTER 6 PSYCHOPHYSICS 153 Measuring Sensations 154 6.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Operational Defi nition: Thresholds 156 Introducing the Variables 157 6.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Measurement Scales: Fechner’s Law and Stevens’ Law 169 6.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Small-n Design: Psychophysical Methods 174 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts Do Pigeons Have Visual Thresholds? 176 Summary 177 Key Terms 177 Discussion Questions 178 Web Connections 178 Psychology in Action: Weber’s Law 178 CHAPTER 7 PERCEPTION 180 Issues in Perception 181 Direct and Indirect Perception 181 Awareness and Perception 183 Introducing the Variables 186 7.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Verbal Report: Perception without Awareness 187 7.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Converging Operations: Perception without Awareness and Perception with Explicit Awareness 196 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts The Color–Distance Illusion 201 Summary 204 Key Terms 205 Discussion Questions 205 Web Connections 205 Laboratory Resource 205 Psychology in Action: The Stroop Effect 206 CHAPTER 8 ATTENTION AND REACTION TIME 207 The ABC of Reaction Time 208 8.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Confounding: Pure Insertion 210 Introducing the Variables 211 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xii 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xii 3/6/08 7:06:49 PM /6/08 7:06:49 PM
CONTENTSxii8.2Experimental Topics andResearchIllustrationsSelection of the Dependent Variable: Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off 2158.3Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsInteraction Effects:Cognitive Control221From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and BoltsMeasuring Attention222Summary225KeyTerms225Discussion Questions225WebConnections226PsycbologyinAction:Speed-AccuracyTrade-Off226227CHAPTER9CONDITIONINGANDLEARNINGTypes of Conditioning229Classical Conditioning: Does the Name Pavlov Ring a Bell?2229Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning231IntroducingtheVariables2349.1Experimental Topics and Research illustrationsWithin- and Between-Subjects Designs: Stimulus Intensity2359.2Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsCounterbalancing: Simultaneous Contrast2409.3ExperimentalTopicsandResearchApplicationsSmall-n Designs: Behavior Problems in Children246From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and BoltsThe Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect253Summary257KeyTerms258Discussion Questions258WebConnections259Psycbologyin Action:Knowledge of Results as Reinforcement259261CHAPTER10REMEMBERINGANDFORGETTINGEbbinghaus's Contribution-—WhenMemoryWasYoung262VarietiesofMemory266IntroducingtheVariables26710.1Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsScale Attenuation:Modality Differences26810.2ExperimentalTopics and ResearchIllustrationsGenerality of Results: Levels of Processing27410.3ExperimentalTopics and ResearchIllustrations6281Interaction Effects: Implicit and Explicit Memory TestsFromProblemtoExperiment:TheNutsandBoltsWhich Is More Effective, Reading or Listening?291
CONTENTS xiii 8.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Selection of the Dependent Variable: Speed–Accuracy Trade-Off 215 8.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Interaction Effects: Cognitive Control 221 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts Measuring Attention 222 Summary 225 Key Terms 225 Discussion Questions 225 Web Connections 226 Psychology in Action: Speed–Accuracy Trade-Off 226 CHAPTER 9 CONDITIONING AND LEARNING 227 Types of Conditioning 229 Classical Conditioning: Does the Name Pavlov Ring a Bell? 229 Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning 231 Introducing the Variables 234 9.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Within- and Between-Subjects Designs: Stimulus Intensity 235 9.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Counterbalancing: Simultaneous Contrast 240 9.3 Experimental Topics and Research Applications Small-n Designs: Behavior Problems in Children 246 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts The Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect 253 Summary 257 Key Terms 258 Discussion Questions 258 Web Connections 259 Psychology in Action: Knowledge of Results as Reinforcement 259 CHAPTER 10 REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING 261 Ebbinghaus’s Contribution—When Memory Was Young 262 Varieties of Memory 266 Introducing the Variables 267 10.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Scale Attenuation: Modality Differences 268 10.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Generality of Results: Levels of Processing 274 10.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Interaction Effects: Implicit and Explicit Memory Tests 281 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts Which Is More Effective, Reading or Listening? 291 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xiii 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xiii 3/6/08 7:06:49 PM /6/08 7:06:49 PM
CONTENTSxivSummary293KeyTerms294DiscussionQuestions295Web Connections 295Laboratory Resources 295PsycbologyinAction:Remembering tbe9/11TerroristAttacks296297CHAPTER11THINKINGANDPROBLEMSOLVINGTwoApproachestoThinking299Thorndike's Trial-and-Error Learning299Insight in Kohler's Chimpanzees30011.1Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsReliability and Replication: Analogical Reasoning301Introducing theVariables30311.2ExperimentalTopicsandResearchIlustrationsExperimental Control: Functional Fixedness31111.3Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsVerbal Reports: Overconfidence in Judgments315From Problemto Experiment:TheNuts and BoltsIncubation in Problem Solving319Summary323Key Terms323DiscussionQuestions324WebConnections325wPsycbologyin Action:Confirmation Bias 325327CHAPTER12INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCESANDDEVELOPMENTApproachestoIndividualDifferences329Methodological Approaches to Individual Differences329Variables Leading to Individual Differences330IntroducingtheVariables33212.1Experimental Topics andResearchIlustrationsReliability of Measures: Intelligence and Developmental Research Designs33312.2Experimental TopicsandResearchIllustrationsOperational Definitions: Intelligence33912.3ExperimentalTopicsandResearchIllustrationsRegression Artifacts: Educational Assessment 345FromProblemtoExperiment:TheNuts andBolts350What Roles Do Motivation and Emotion Play in Intellectual Performance?Summary354KeyTerms355DiscussionQuestions355WebConnections356PsycbologyinAction:ADemonstrationof RegressionArtifacts356
xiv CONTENTS Summary 293 Key Terms 294 Discussion Questions 295 Web Connections 295 Laboratory Resources 295 Psychology in Action: Remembering the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks 296 CHAPTER 11 THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING 297 Two Approaches to Thinking 299 Thorndike’s Trial-and-Error Learning 299 Insight in Köhler’s Chimpanzees 300 11.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Reliability and Replication: Analogical Reasoning 301 Introducing the Variables 303 11.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Experimental Control: Functional Fixedness 311 11.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Verbal Reports: Overconfi dence in Judgments 315 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts Incubation in Problem Solving 319 Summary 323 Key Terms 323 Discussion Questions 324 Web Connections 325 Psychology in Action: Confi rmation Bias 325 CHAPTER 12 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND DEVELOPMENT 327 Approaches to Individual Differences 329 Methodological Approaches to Individual Differences 329 Variables Leading to Individual Differences 330 Introducing the Variables 332 12.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Reliability of Measures: Intelligence and Developmental Research Designs 333 12.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Operational Defi nitions: Intelligence 339 12.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Regression Artifacts: Educational Assessment 345 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts What Roles Do Motivation and Emotion Play in Intellectual Performance? 350 Summary 354 Key Terms 355 Discussion Questions 355 Web Connections 356 Psychology in Action: A Demonstration of Regression Artifacts 356 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xiv 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xiv 3/6/08 7:06:49 PM /6/08 7:06:49 PM
CONTENTSXV358CHAPTER13SOCIALPSYCHOLOGYThe Origins of Social Psychology35913.1ExperimentalTopicsandResearchIllustrationsExperimental Control:Obedience to Authority362IntroducingtheVariables363Conditions Encouraging Obedience36713.2ExperimentalTopics andResearchIllustrationsDemand Characteristics and Experimenter Bias: HypnosisS37013.3Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsField Research: Bystander Intervention37413.4Experimental Topics and Research IllustrationsChoosing the Dependent Variable: Measuring Stereotypes and Prejudice378From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and BoltsHowDoesthePresenceofOtherPeopleAffectanIndividual'sPerformanceon aTask?381Summary384KeyTerms385DiscussionQuestions385WebConnections386LaboratoryResources386PsycbologyinAction:TbePowerof BeinginanExperiment386388CHAPTER14ENVIRONMENTALPSYCHOLOGYIsSciencetheOnlyPathtoTruth?389Discovering the Truth about City Life39114.1ExperimentalTopics and ResearchIllustrationsGeneralization of Results: Crowding393Introducing theVariables39414.2ExperimentalTopicsandResearchIllustrations401Quasi-Experiments: Noise and Cognitive Performance14.3Experimental Topics andResearchIllustrationsEthical Issues:DeceptionandConcealment403From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and BoltsIsExposuretoNoiseBadforYou?405Summary407KeyTerms408DiscussionQuestions408WebConmections408Laboratory Resources 408Psycbologyin Action:Noiseand Memory409CHAPTER15410HUMANFACTORSHuman Factors and Human Behavior4411Definition411Honor ThyUser 412The Value of Life413
CONTENTS xv CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 358 The Origins of Social Psychology 359 13.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Experimental Control: Obedience to Authority 362 Introducing the Variables 363 Conditions Encouraging Obedience 367 13.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Demand Characteristics and Experimenter Bias: Hypnosis 370 13.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Field Research: Bystander Intervention 374 13.4 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Choosing the Dependent Variable: Measuring Stereotypes and Prejudice 378 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts How Does the Presence of Other People Affect an Individual’s Performance on a Task? 381 Summary 384 Key Terms 385 Discussion Questions 385 Web Connections 386 Laboratory Resources 386 Psychology in Action: The Power of Being in an Experiment 386 CHAPTER 14 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 388 Is Science the Only Path to Truth? 389 Discovering the Truth about City Life 391 14.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Generalization of Results: Crowding 393 Introducing the Variables 394 14.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Quasi-Experiments: Noise and Cognitive Performance 401 14.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Ethical Issues: Deception and Concealment 403 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts Is Exposure to Noise Bad for You? 405 Summary 407 Key Terms 408 Discussion Questions 408 Web Connections 408 Laboratory Resources 408 Psychology in Action: Noise and Memory 409 CHAPTER 15 HUMAN FACTORS 410 Human Factors and Human Behavior 411 Defi nition 411 Honor Thy User 412 The Value of Life 413 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xv 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xv 3/6/08 7:06:50 PM /6/08 7:06:50 PM
CONTENTSxviIntroducingtheVariables41415.1Experimental Topics and ResearchIllustrationsSmall-n Design: Dynamic Visual Acuity41515.2Experimental Topics andResearchIllustrationsSelection of Dependent Variable: Mental Workload 41715.3Experimental Topics and ResearchIllustrationsField Research: The Centered High-Mounted Brake Light425From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and BoltsMeasurePilot Mental Workload in Flight427Summary:428KeyTerms428DiscussionQuestions429OWeb Connections429PsycbologyinAction:Understanding Traffic Sign Symbols429432APPENDIXAEXPERIMENTALPSYCHOLOGY:AHISTORICALSKETCHOrigins of Experimental Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology433The Contribution of Helmholtz435Early Scientific Psychology435ErnstWeber436Gustav Fechner 436Wilhelm Wundt437Hermann Ebbinghaus437Schools of Psychology 438Structuralism: The Structure of Mental Life438Functionalism: The Uses of Mind439440Behaviorism:Rejecting Mental ExplanationsGestalt Psychology: Perception of the Whole441SomeModernTrends442Worid War II andtheExtension of Psychology442CognitivePsychology:TheReturnofMind442443Cognitive Neuroscience: The Decade of the BrainSpecialization 444Summary446Key Terms447WebConnections447448APPENDIXBSTATISTICALREASONING:ANINTRODUCTIONDescriptive Statistics:Telling It LikeIt Is449Central Tendency450Measures of Dispersion451ANote on Calculation453The Normal Distribution454Correlation Coefficient 456
xvi CONTENTS Introducing the Variables 414 15.1 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Small-n Design: Dynamic Visual Acuity 415 15.2 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Selection of Dependent Variable: Mental Workload 417 15.3 Experimental Topics and Research Illustrations Field Research: The Centered High-Mounted Brake Light 425 From Problem to Experiment: The Nuts and Bolts Measure Pilot Mental Workload in Flight 427 Summary 428 Key Terms 428 Discussion Questions 429 Web Connections 429 Psychology in Action: Understanding Traffi c Sign Symbols 429 APPENDIX A EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: A HISTORICAL SKETCH 432 Origins of Experimental Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology 433 The Contribution of Helmholtz 435 Early Scientifi c Psychology 435 Ernst Weber 436 Gustav Fechner 436 Wilhelm Wundt 437 Hermann Ebbinghaus 437 Schools of Psychology 438 Structuralism: The Structure of Mental Life 438 Functionalism: The Uses of Mind 439 Behaviorism: Rejecting Mental Explanations 440 Gestalt Psychology: Perception of the Whole 441 Some Modern Trends 442 World War II and the Extension of Psychology 442 Cognitive Psychology: The Return of Mind 442 Cognitive Neuroscience: The Decade of the Brain 443 Specialization 444 Summary 446 Key Terms 447 Web Connections 447 APPENDIX B STATISTICAL REASONING: AN INTRODUCTION 448 Descriptive Statistics: Telling It Like It Is 449 Central Tendency 450 Measures of Dispersion 451 A Note on Calculation 453 The Normal Distribution 454 Correlation Coeffi cient 456 59533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xvi 9533_01_fm_pi-xxiv.indd xvi 3/6/08 7:06:50 PM /6/08 7:06:50 PM