Kagan's office building,William James Hall, is under constructionwhen I arrive, so I have to dodge and wend my way through a con-crete maze, above me banners flapping,"Warning.Hard Hat Area."Iride the elevator up. The entire building is in a reverential hush.Deep,deep beneath me,in the bowels of the basement where arti-facts are stored,where supposedly some of Skinner's black boxes areencased,jackhammers gnaw through old concrete and I can hear atinyvoiceyelling,"Presto."I get offon floor fifteen.The elevator doors part and before me, asthough in a dream, sits a tiny black dog, a toy breed, its mouth a redrent in its otherwise dark fur face. The dog stares and stares at me,some sort ofsentryI don'tknow.I love dogs, although toys are notmy preference,I wonder why they're not my preference.As a child Ihad a toy dog and it bit me, so perhaps I've been conditioned againstthem, and I could be reconditioned with rewards so I come to cham-pion the shitzu over the shepherd.In any case,I bend down to patthe little dog, and as though it senses my dislike, it flies into a frenzy.baring a set ofimpressive and very un-toy-like teeth and snarling as itleaps upto grab my exposedwrist."Gambit!"a woman shouts, running out from one of the offices."Gambit stop that! Oh my god, did he hurt you?""I'm fine,"I say, but I'm not fine.I'm shaking.I have been nega-tively reinforced-no, I have been punished. I will never trust a toyagain, and I don'tWANT that to change. Skinner would say he couldchange it, but how changeable am I, are we?PROFESSOR KACANSMOKES apipe.His office smells likepipe,that semisweet rancid odor ofburnt embers.He says with the kind oftotal assurance I associate with the Ivy League cast, "Let me tell you,your first chapter should not be Skinner. It was Pavlov in the earlytwentieth century and then Thorndike a decade later who did thefirst experiments showing the power ofconditioning. Skinner elabo-
Kagan's office building, William Jame s Hall, is under construction whe n I arrive, so I have to dodge and wen d my way through a con - crete maze, above me banners flapping, "Warning. Hard Ha t Area." I ride the elevator up. Th e entire building is in a reverential hush. Deep , deep beneath me , in the bowels of the basement wher e artifacts are stored, wher e supposedly some of Skinner's black boxes are encased, jackhammers gnaw through old concret e and I can hear a tiny voic e yelling, "Presto." I get off on floor fifteen. Th e elevator doors part and before me , as though in a dream, sits a tiny black dog, a toy breed, its mout h a red rent in its otherwis e dark fur face. Th e dog stares and stares at me , some sort of sentry—I don't know. I love dogs, although toys are not my preference. I wonde r wh y they're not my preference. As a child I had a toy dog and it bit me , so perhaps I've bee n conditioned against them, and I could be reconditioned with rewards so I com e to champion the shitzu over the shepherd. In any case, I ben d down to pat the little dog, and as though it senses my dislike, it flies into a frenzy, baring a set of impressive and very un-toy-like teeth and snarling as it leaps up to grab my exposed wrist. "Gambit! " a woma n shouts, running out from on e of the offices. "Gambi t stop that! Oh my god, did he hurt you? " "I' m fine," I say, but I'm not fine. I'm shaking. I have bee n nega - tively reinforced—no, I have bee n punished. I will never trust a toy again, and I don't WAN T that to change . Skinne r would say he could change it, but ho w changeable am I, are we? PROFESSO R KACA N SMOKE S a pipe. His office smells like pipe, that semisweet rancid odo r of burnt embers. He says with the kind of total assurance I associate with the Ivy League cast, "Le t me tell you, your first chapter should not be Skinner. It was Pavlov in the early twentieth century and then Thorndik e a decade later wh o did the first experiments showing the powe r o f conditioning. Skinne r elabo -
rated on this work.But his findings can't explain thought, language,reasoning,metaphor, original ideas, or other cognitive phenomenaNorwill theyexplain guiltor shame.""what about,"I say,"skinner's extrapolations from his experi-ments? That we have no free will. That we are ruled only by rein-forcers.Do you believe that?""Do you believe that?" Kagan asks."Well," I say,"I don't absolutely rule out the possibility that we arealways either controlled or controlling, that our free will is really justa response to some cues that-"Before I can finish my sentence, Kagan dives under his desk:Imean that literally,He springs from his seat and goes head forwardinto nether regions beneath his desk so I cannot see him anymore"I'm under my desk,"he shouts."I've NEVER gotten under mydesk before.Is this not an act offree will?"I blink.Where Kagan was sitting is just space. Beneath his desk, Ihear a rustle. I'm a little worried about him.I think he said to me, overthe phone when I asked for the interview, that he had a bad back."Well,"I say,and suddenly my hands feel cold with fear,"I guess itcould be an act offree will or it could be that you've"Again, Kagan won't let me finish. He's still under the desk, hewon't come up, he's conducting the interview in a duck-and-covercrouch. I can't even see him.His voice rises, disembodied."Lauren," he says, "Lauren, there is no way you can explain mybeing under this desk right now as anything but an act of free will.It's not a response to a reinforcer or a cue. I've NE V ER gotten undermy desk before.""Okay,"I say.We sit there for a minute, he down there, I up here.I think I hearthat damn dog in the hall, scratching. I'm afraid to go back out there,but I no longer want to be in here.I am caged by contingencies, andso I sit very still
rated on this work. Bu t his findings can't explain thought, language, reasoning, metaphor, original ideas, or othe r cognitive phenomena . N o r will they explain guilt or shame." "Wha t about," I say, "Skinner's extrapolations from his experiments? Tha t we have no free will. Tha t we are ruled only by reinforcers. Do you believe that?" " D o you believe that? " Kagan asks. "Well, " I say, "I don't absolutely rule out the possibility that we are always either controlled or controlling, that our free will is really just a response to some cues that—" Befor e I can finish my sentence, Kagan dives under his desk. I mean that literally. He springs from his seat and goes head forward into nethe r regions beneath his desk so I cannot see him anymore. "I' m unde r my desk," h e shouts. "I've NEVE R gotten unde r my desk before. Is this not an act of free will? " I blink. Wher e Kagan was sitting is just space. Beneath his desk, I hear a rustle. I'm a little worried about him. I think he said to me , over the phone whe n I asked for the interview, that he had a bad back. "Well, " I say, and suddenly my hands feel cold with fear, "I guess it could be an act of free will or it could be that you've—" Again, Kagan won't let me finish. He's still unde r the desk, he won't com e up, he's conducting the interview in a duck-and-cove r crouch. I can't even see him. His voic e rises, disembodied. "Lauren, " he says, "Lauren, there is no way you can explain my being under this desk right no w as anything but an act of free will. It's not a response to a reinforcer or a cue. I've NEVE R gotten under my desk before." "Okay, " I say. We sit there for a minute, he down there, I up here. I think I hear that damn dog in the hall, scratching. I'm afraid to go back out there, but I no longe r want to be in here. I am caged by contingencies, and so I sit very still
KACAN,IT APPEARSto me,is somewhat dismissiveofSkinner'scontributions.But certainly there are ways in which Skinner's exper-iments-even ifthey are derivativeare both currently relevant andhelpful inthe construction ofabetterworld,In theI950s and 1960sSkinner's behavioral methods were taken to state asylums and appliedto the severely psychotic. Using his principles ofoperant condition-ing, hopelessly schizophrenic patients were able to learn to dressthemselves, to feed themselves, each rise ofthe spoon rewarded witha coveted cigarette. Later in the century,clinicians began using tech-niques like systematic desensitization and flooding, drawn directlyfrom Skinner's operant repertoire, to treat phobias and panic disor-ders, and these behavioral treatments are still widely employed andobviously efficacious today.Says Stephen Kosslyn,professor of psy-chology at Harvard, "Skinner will make a comeback, I predict it.Imyselfam a real Skinner fan.Scientists are just now making excitingnew discoveries that point to the neural substrates ofSkinner's find-ings." Kosslyn explains the evidence that there are two major learn-ing systems in the brain: the basal ganglia, a collection of spiderysynapses located deep in the paste ofthe ancient brain, where habitsare grooved, and the frontal cortex, that big rumpled bulge that rosein tandem with our reason and ambition. The frontal cortex, neuro-scientists hypothesize, is where we learn how to think independently,to visualize the future and plan based on the past. It is where creativ-ity and all its surprising swerves originate,but, says Kosslyn,"Only aportion ofour cognitions are mediated by this cortex."The rest oflearning, says Kosslyn,"a significant amount,is habit driven, andSkinner's experiments have led us to search for the neural substratesofthese habits."In essence,Kosslyn is saying, Skinner led scientists tothe basal ganglia, he led them down, down into the basement ofthebrain, where they sifted through neural tangles to find the chemistrybehind the pecks and presses and all those conditioned cartwheels wedo on the green grass, in the summer.Says Bryan Porter, an experimental psychologist who appliesSkinnerian-based behaviorism to address traffic safety problems,"Of
KACAN , IT APPEAR S t o me , is somewha t dismissive o f Skinner's contributions. Bu t certainly there are ways in whic h Skinner's experiments—even if they are derivative—are bot h currently relevant and helpful in the construction of a bette r world. In the 1950 s and 1960 s Skinner's behavioral methods were taken to state asylums and applied to the severely psychotic. Using his principles of operant condition - ing, hopelessly schizophrenic patients wer e able to learn to dress themselves, to feed themselves, each rise of the spoon rewarded with a coveted cigarette. Later in the century, clinicians began using tech - niques like systematic desensitization and flooding, drawn directly from Skinner's operant repertoire, to treat phobias and panic disorders, and these behavioral treatments are still widely employed and obviously efficacious today. Says Stephen Kosslyn, professor of psychology at Harvard, "Skinne r will make a comeback , I predict it. I myself am a real Skinne r fan. Scientists are just now making exciting n ew discoveries that point to the neural substrates of Skinner's findings." Kosslyn explains the evidenc e that there are two major learning systems in the brain: the basal ganglia, a collection of spidery synapses located deep in the paste of the ancient brain, wher e habits are grooved, and the frontal cortex , that big rumpled bulge that rose in tandem with our reason and ambition. Th e frontal cortex , neuro - scientists hypothesize, is wher e we learn how to think independently, to visualize the future and plan based on the past. It is wher e creativity and all its surprising swerves originate, but, says Kosslyn, "Onl y a portion of our cognitions are mediated by this cortex. " Th e rest of learning, says Kosslyn, "a significant amount, is habit driven, and Skinner's experiments have led us to search for the neural substrates of these habits." In essence, Kosslyn is saying, Skinne r led scientists to the basal ganglia, he led them down, down into the basement of the brain, wher e they sifted through neural tangles to find the chemistry behind the pecks and presses and all those conditioned cartwheels we do on the green grass, in the summer. Says Brya n Porter, an experimenta l psychologist wh o applies Skinnerian-based behaviorism to address traffic safety problems, "O f
course behaviorism is neither bad nor dead. Skinner's behaviorism isresponsible for so many beneficial social interventions.Usingbehav.ioral techniques we have been able to reduce dangerous driving, interms ofthe number ofred lights run,by ten to twelve percent.Alsobecause of Skinner, we know that people respond better to rewardsthan punishment. Skinner's techniques have been instrumental inhelping the huge population ofanxiety-disordered people overcome,or extinguish, their phobias.Thanks to Skinner,backward autisticsnowknow howto put on clean shirts and feed themselves.Thanks toSkinner, you knowhow to give your kid positive reinforcement.Youknow that rewards work far better in the establishment ofbehaviorthan punishment, because Skinner so stressed the power ofpositivereinforcement.This has huge implications politically,if our govern-ment could just absorb that. In fact," says Porter, "in a weird cir-cuitous way, we have Skinner to thank for the very popular beliefthat it's best to be kind to people, to give them A's when maybe theydeserve B's,to keep saying,'Oh what a goodjob you're doing'even ifthey're not. Skinner,"says Porter laughing,"although he might nothave liked it,ispracticallynewage."I ask Porter about the daughter.Was she raised in a box? Is shedead?Porter sighs."Okay,"he says."He raised herina box,but it's notwhat you think, really.""Is she dead?"I ask.Porter misses just the slightest beat, or do I imagine it?"No,"he finally says. He clears his throat. "Deborah Skinner isalive."His voice drops."And she's doing fine,really."But there is something in the way he delivers this pronouncementthat makes me doubt him. Thereis a suspicioussympathy in hisvoice, as though she's just survived some horrid sort ofsurgery.MY CHILD CRIES in the night.She wakes soaked in sweat, eyeballsbulging,dreams melting as she comes to consciousness,"shhhh
course behaviorism is neithe r bad nor dead. Skinner's behaviorism is responsible for so many beneficial social interventions. Usin g behavioral techniques we have bee n able to reduce dangerous driving, in terms of the numbe r of red lights run, by ten to twelve percent. Also because of Skinner, we kno w that people respond better to rewards than punishment. Skinner's technique s have bee n instrumental in helping the huge population of anxiety-disordered peopl e overcome , or extinguish, their phobias. Thank s to Skinner, backward autistics n ow kno w how to put on clean shirts and feed themselves. Thank s to Skinner, you kno w ho w to give your kid positive reinforcement.You know that rewards wor k far bette r in the establishment of behavior than punishment, because Skinne r so stressed the powe r of positive reinforcement. This has huge implications politically, if our government could just absorb that. In fact," says Porter, "in a weird circuitous way, we have Skinne r to thank for the very popular belie f that it's best to be kind to people, to give them A's whe n maybe they deserve B's, to keep saying,'Oh wha t a goo d jo b you're doing' even if they're not. Skinner, " says Porte r laughing, "although he might not have liked it, is practically new age." I ask Porte r about the daughter. Was she raised in a box ? Is she dead? Porte r sighs. "Okay, " he says. "H e raised he r in a box , but it's not what you think, really." "Is she dead?" I ask. Porter misses just the slightest beat, or do I imagine it? "No, " he finally says. He clears his throat. "Debora h Skinne r is alive." His voic e drops. "An d she's doing fine, really." B u t there is something in the way he delivers this pronouncemen t that makes me doubt him. Ther e is a suspicious sympathy in his voice, as though she's just survived some horrid sort of surgery. MY CHIL D CRIE S in the night. Sh e wakes soaked in sweat, eyeballs bulging, dreams melting as she come s to consciousness. "Shhhh
Shhhh."I hold her body against mine.Her bedclothes are soaked, herhair a dark mat ofpressed curls. I stroke her head, where the fontanelshave long since sealed. I stroke the slope of her forehead, where thefrontal cortex daily sprouts its exuberant rootwork, and then movemy hand down to her taut neck, where I imagine I feel the basal gan-glia, its seaweed-like snarls. I hold my child in the night, and outsideher bedroom window a dog howls, and when I look, the animal issoap-white in the moonlight.At first my child cries because she's scared, a series ofbad dreamsI'm guessing. She's two and her world is expandingwith fearfulspeed. But then, as the nights go by, she cries simply because shelongs to be held.She has become habituated to these predawnembraces, to the rocking chair's rhythm while the sky outside is sogenerously salted with stars. My husband and I are exhausted."Maybe we should Skinnerize her,"I say."We should what?"he says."Maybe we should employ Skinnerian principles to break her ofher habit. Every time we go to her and pick her up, we're giving herwhat Skinner would call positive reinforcement. We have to extin-guish the behavior by reducing and then eliminating our responses."My husband and I are having this conversation in bed, I'm sur-prised by how nimbly my tongue takes in and swirls out the languageof B.EIpractically sound like an expert. Speaking Skinnerian isalmost fun. Chaos confined.Rest returned."So you're suggesting,"he says,"that we just let her cry it out."Hesounds weary.All parents know this debate."No,"I say."Listen.Not cry it out. Put her on a strict rate ofreducedreinforcement.The first time she cries, we pick her up for only threeminutes.The next time she cries, we only pick her up for two minutes.We could even use a stopwatch."My voice grows excited, or is it anx-ious?"Then we gradually lengthen the amount oftime we allow her tocry. Just very very gradually," I say."Slowly, we'll extinguish the behav-ior if we extinguish our responses .the contingencies,"I say,tracing
Shhhh. " I hold her body against mine . He r bedclothe s are soaked, her hair a dark mat of pressed curls. I stroke her head, wher e the fontanels have long since sealed. I stroke the slope of he r forehead, wher e the frontal corte x daily sprouts its exuberant rootwork, and then move my hand down to he r taut neck, wher e I imagine I feel the basal ganglia, its seaweed-like snarls. I hold my child in the night, and outside her bedroom window a dog howls, and whe n I look, the animal is soap-white in the moonlight. At first my child cries because she's scared, a series of bad dreams I'm guessing. She's two and he r world is expanding with fearful speed. Bu t then, as the nights go by, she cries simply because she longs to be held. She has becom e habituated to these predawn embraces, to the rocking chair's rhythm whil e the sky outside is so generously salted with stars. My husband and I are exhausted. "Mayb e we should Skinneriz e her," I say. " W e should what? " he says. "Mayb e we should employ Skinnerian principles to break he r of her habit. Every time we go to he r and pick he r up, we're giving her what Skinne r would call positive reinforcement. We have to extinguish the behavior by reducing and then eliminating our responses." My husband and I are having this conversation in bed. I'm surprised by ho w nimbly my tongue takes in and swirls out the language of B. E I practically sound like an expert. Speaking Skinnerian is almost fun. Chao s confined. Rest returned. " S o you're suggesting," he says, "that we just let her cry it out." He sounds weary. All parents kno w this debate. "No, " I say. "Listen. No t cry it out. Put her on a strict rate of reduced reinforcement. Th e first time she cries, we pick her up for only three minutes. Th e next time she cries, we only pick her up for two minutes. We could even use a stopwatch." My voice grows excited, or is it anxious? "The n we gradually lengthen the amount of time we allow her to cry. Just very very gradually," I say. "Slowly, we'll extinguish the behavior if we extinguish our responses . . . the contingencies," I say, tracing