processes,with all countries taking action in with cereals accounting for the largest share. accordance with their respective capabilities- Broad efforts are needed to expand demonstra- implies a specific direction to upgrading skills ble,immediate gains-and to create new prod- and possibly to new areas of work. ucts for industrial or artisanal manufacture. A large number of the Sustainable Much of the work tied to a move to environ- Development Goal targets intend to focus on mental sustainability (target 9.4)will involve Much of the work work that has negative implications for human infrastructure and construction.Energy pro- development.Target 8.7,if reached,would jects (goal 7)can drive long-and short-term tied to environmental improve the lives of 168 million child labour- jobs,directly and indirectly,when they enable sustainability will ers and 21 million in forced labour.Target other industries to grow and flourish.In 2014 involve infrastructure 5.2 would assist 4.4 million sexually exploited renewable energy (excluding large hydropower, women,and target 3.a would affect an estimat- which had roughly 1.5 million direct jobs)em- and construction ed 100 million workers in tobacco.Active poli- ployed an estimated 7.7 million people directly cies and programmes will be needed to support and indirectly.In renewable energy the field the people formerly engaged in these kinds of of solar photovoltaics is the largest employer work. worldwide,with 2.5 million jobs. Other goals and targets involve transform- By strengthening health and education ing current modes of work and introducing outcomes,especially among children,the new approaches.Goal 2-ending hunger and Sustainable Development Goals can set the achieving food security and improved nutrition basis for people to acquire the skills to move to and promoting sustainable agriculture-has occupations that involve sustainable work. the potential to transform how the very large number of people engaged in agriculture carry out their activities. Enhancing human development Work in some primary industries-such as through work needs concrete farming,fisheries and forestry-engages more policies and an agenda for action than a billion people worldwide,including most of those living on less than $1.25 a day. Policy options for enhancing human develop- The sector is responsible for a large proportion ment through work have to be built around of greenhouse gas emissions,is associated with three broad dimensions:creating more work unsustainable patterns of water and soil use,is opportunities to expand work choices,ensur- linked to deforestation and loss of biodiversity ing workers'well-being to reinforce a positive and is especially susceptible to the disruptions link between work and human development of climate change. and targeted actions to address the challenges Transforming the way farmers grow and pro-of specific groups and contexts.An agenda for cess crops is thus crucial.Technologies and farm-action to build momentum for change is also ing methods that can make a difference exist but needed,pursuing a three-pillar approach-a need to be adopted faster.For example,about a New Social Contract,a Global Deal and the third of total food production is lost or wasted,Decent Work Agenda(figure 8). 16 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
Much of the work tied to environmental sustainability will involve infrastructure and construction processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities— implies a specific direction to upgrading skills and possibly to new areas of work. A large number of the Sustainable Development Goal targets intend to focus on work that has negative implications for human development. Target 8.7, if reached, would improve the lives of 168 million child labourers and 21 million in forced labour. Target 5.2 would assist 4.4 million sexually exploited women, and target 3.a would affect an estimated 100 million workers in tobacco. Active policies and programmes will be needed to support the people formerly engaged in these kinds of work. Other goals and targets involve transforming current modes of work and introducing new approaches. Goal 2—ending hunger and achieving food security and improved nutrition and promoting sustainable agriculture—has the potential to transform how the very large number of people engaged in agriculture carry out their activities. Work in some primary industries—such as farming, fisheries and forestry—engages more than a billion people worldwide, including most of those living on less than $1.25 a day. The sector is responsible for a large proportion of greenhouse gas emissions, is associated with unsustainable patterns of water and soil use, is linked to deforestation and loss of biodiversity and is especially susceptible to the disruptions of climate change. Transforming the way farmers grow and process crops is thus crucial. Technologies and farming methods that can make a difference exist but need to be adopted faster. For example, about a third of total food production is lost or wasted, with cereals accounting for the largest share. Broad efforts are needed to expand demonstrable, immediate gains—and to create new products for industrial or artisanal manufacture. Much of the work tied to a move to environmental sustainability (target 9.4) will involve infrastructure and construction. Energy projects (goal 7) can drive long- and short-term jobs, directly and indirectly, when they enable other industries to grow and flourish. In 2014 renewable energy (excluding large hydropower, which had roughly 1.5 million direct jobs) employed an estimated 7.7 million people directly and indirectly. In renewable energy the field of solar photovoltaics is the largest employer worldwide, with 2.5 million jobs. By strengthening health and education outcomes, especially among children, the Sustainable Development Goals can set the basis for people to acquire the skills to move to occupations that involve sustainable work. Enhancing human development through work needs concrete policies and an agenda for action Policy options for enhancing human development through work have to be built around three broad dimensions: creating more work opportunities to expand work choices, ensuring workers’ well-being to reinforce a positive link between work and human development and targeted actions to address the challenges of specific groups and contexts. An agenda for action to build momentum for change is also needed, pursuing a three-pillar approach—a New Social Contract, a Global Deal and the Decent Work Agenda (figure 8). 16 | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
FIGURE8 Policy options for enhancing human development through work Strategies for creating work opportunities Strategies for ensuring workers'well-being Seizing opportunities of the changing word of work Guaranteeing workers'rights and benefits Formulating national employment strategies to Extending social protection address crisis in work Addressing inequalities Strategies for targeted action An agenda for action Moving towards sustainable work Decent Work Agend由 Balancing domestic and outside work Global Deal Undertaking group-specific initiatives New Social Contract Source:Human Development Report Office. Creating work opportunities requires well formulated employment plans as well as strategies to seize opportunities in the changing world of work Work for human development is about more mechanisms)for creating more work op- than just jobs,but human development is also portunities,as in Chile,Colombia,India, about expanding people's choices and making Malaysia and Singapore. sure that opportunities are available.This in- Formulating an employment-led growth cludes ensuring that adequate and quality paid strategy.Employment can no longer be con- work opportunities are available and accessi- sidered to be simply a derivative ofeconomic ble for those who need and want paid work. growth.Some policy interventions would National employment strategies are needed entail strengthening links between small and Employment can for addressing the complex challenges in medium-sized enterprises in need of capital work in many countries.About 27 developing and large capital-intensive firms to boost no longer be countries have adopted national employment employment,upgrading workers'skills over considered to be strategies,another 18 are doing so and 5 are the lifecycle,focusing investments and inputs simply a derivative of revisiting their policies to better respond to on sectors where poor people work (such new employment challenges.Major policy as agriculture),removing barriers critical to economic growth instruments of a national employment strategy employment-led growth(such as removing might include: biases towards small and medium-sized en- Setting an employment target.More than terprises in access to credit),implementing a dozen countries have employment tar- solid legal and regulatory frameworks and gets (including Honduras and Indonesia). addressing the distribution of capital and Central banks may pursue dual targeting- labour in public spending to emphasize tech- moving beyond a focus primarily on inflation nologies that create jobs. control to emphasize employment targets. Moving to financial inclusion.An inclusive f- They may also consider specific monetary nancial system is essential for structural trans- policy instruments(such as credit allocation formation and work creation.In developing Overview 17
Employment can no longer be considered to be simply a derivative of economic growth Creating work opportunities requires well formulated employment plans as well as strategies to seize opportunities in the changing world of work Work for human development is about more than just jobs, but human development is also about expanding people’s choices and making sure that opportunities are available. This includes ensuring that adequate and quality paid work opportunities are available and accessible for those who need and want paid work. National employment strategies are needed for addressing the complex challenges in work in many countries. About 27 developing countries have adopted national employment strategies, another 18 are doing so and 5 are revisiting their policies to better respond to new employment challenges. Major policy instruments of a national employment strategy might include: • Setting an employment target. More than a dozen countries have employment targets (including Honduras and Indonesia). Central banks may pursue dual targeting— moving beyond a focus primarily on inflation control to emphasize employment targets. They may also consider specific monetary policy instruments (such as credit allocation mechanisms) for creating more work opportunities, as in Chile, Colombia, India, Malaysia and Singapore. • Formulating an employment-led growth strategy. Employment can no longer be considered to be simply a derivative of economic growth. Some policy interventions would entail strengthening links between small and medium-sized enterprises in need of capital and large capital-intensive firms to boost employment, upgrading workers’ skills over the lifecycle, focusing investments and inputs on sectors where poor people work (such as agriculture), removing barriers critical to employment-led growth (such as removing biases towards small and medium-sized enterprises in access to credit), implementing solid legal and regulatory frameworks and addressing the distribution of capital and labour in public spending to emphasize technologies that create jobs . • Moving to financial inclusion. An inclusive financial system is essential for structural transformation and work creation. In developing FIGURE 8 Policy options for enhancing human development through work Strategies for creating work opportunities Strategies for ensuring workers’ well-being Strategies for targeted action An agenda for action Seizing opportunities of the changing world of work Formulating national employment strategies to address crisis in work Extending social protection Guaranteeing workers’ rights and benefits Addressing inequalities Global Deal Decent Work Agenda New Social Contract Balancing domestic and outside work Moving towards sustainable work Undertaking group-specific initiatives Source: Human Development Report Office. Overview | 17
countries the lack of access to finance is a Seizing opportunities in the changing major hindrance to enterprise operation world of work requires policy actions to help and growth,particularly for women.Policy people thrive in the new work environment. options might encompass extending banking Individuals can flourish if they are equipped services to disadvantaged and marginalized with skills,knowledge and competencies to groups(as in Ecuador),steering credit to- harness new technologies and capitalize on wards unserved,remote areas and targeted emerging opportunities.Some of the policy sectors (as in Argentina,Malaysia and the actions here would require: Republic of Korea)and lowering interest Heading off a race to the bottom.Given the rates and providing credit guarantees and realized and potential benefits that globali- subsidized credit to small and medium-sized zation brings to work,a race to the bottom enterprises and export-oriented sectors. -ever lower wages and worsening working Building a supportive macroeconomic frame- conditions-is not the only outcome.Global National employment work.Some policy instruments to reduce vol- attention to ensuring decent wages,maintain- atility and create secure jobs include keeping ing workers'safety and protecting their rights strategies are needed the real exchange rate stable and competitive, can pre-empt such a race and make business for addressing the managing capital accounts prudently,restruc- more sustainable in the long run,as can fair complex challenges in turing budgets towards job-creating sectors, trade,because work conditions are becoming work in many countries building fiscal space for public spending, increasingly critical in consumers'minds. promoting an enabling business environ- Providing workers with new skills and ed- ment,ensuring high-quality infrastructure ucation.Higher and specific skills will be and adopting a regulatory framework that needed for science and engineering jobs and encourages competition,enhances efficiency for many other jobs,as will be an aptitude and ensures transparency and accountability for creativity,problem solving and lifelong for business learning. Strategies for ensuring workers'well-being must focus on rights,benefits,social protection and inequalities Guaranteeing the rights and benefits of workers workplace accessibility and access to ap- is at the heart of strengthening the positive link propriate technology and adopt affirmative between work and human development and action policies. weakening the negative connections. .Making workers'rights and safety a cross-bor- Policies could include: der issue.Measures may include regulatory .Setting legislation and regulation.These frameworks that extend to migrants,sub- should be on collective bargaining,un- regional remittance clearinghouses and more employment insurance,the minimum wage, support to migrant source countries.These protection of workers'rights and worker frameworks may constitute regional or sub- safety.Steps to ratify and implement the regional public goods. eight International Labour Organization Promoting collective action and trade union- conventions on work and to put in place legal ismn.Given globalization,the technological frameworks for enforcement are also needed revolution and changes in labour markets, (figure 9). support is needed for emerging forms of .Ensuring that people with disabilities can collective action (such as the Self-Employed work.Measures can induce employers to Women's Association in India),innovative provide an appropriate working environ- organizations for flexible workers(such as ment.States can make efforts to change the Freelancers Union in the United States) norms and perceptions,enhance the capa- and collective bargaining,including peaceful bilities of people with disabilities,ensure protests and demonstrations. 18 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
National employment strategies are needed for addressing the complex challenges in work in many countries countries the lack of access to finance is a major hindrance to enterprise operation and growth, particularly for women. Policy options might encompass extending banking services to disadvantaged and marginalized groups (as in Ecuador), steering credit towards unserved, remote areas and targeted sectors (as in Argentina, Malaysia and the Republic of Korea) and lowering interest rates and providing credit guarantees and subsidized credit to small and medium-sized enterprises and export-oriented sectors. • Building a supportive macroeconomic framework. Some policy instruments to reduce volatility and create secure jobs include keeping the real exchange rate stable and competitive, managing capital accounts prudently, restructuring budgets towards job-creating sectors, building fiscal space for public spending, promoting an enabling business environment, ensuring high-quality infrastructure and adopting a regulatory framework that encourages competition, enhances efficiency and ensures transparency and accountability for business. Seizing opportunities in the changing world of work requires policy actions to help people thrive in the new work environment. Individuals can flourish if they are equipped with skills, knowledge and competencies to harness new technologies and capitalize on emerging opportunities. Some of the policy actions here would require: • Heading off a race to the bottom. Given the realized and potential benefits that globalization brings to work, a race to the bottom —ever lower wages and worsening working conditions—is not the only outcome. Global attention to ensuring decent wages, maintaining workers’ safety and protecting their rights can pre-empt such a race and make business more sustainable in the long run, as can fair trade, because work conditions are becoming increasingly critical in consumers’ minds. • Providing workers with new skills and education. Higher and specific skills will be needed for science and engineering jobs and for many other jobs, as will be an aptitude for creativity, problem solving and lifelong learning. Strategies for ensuring workers’ well-being must focus on rights, benefits, social protection and inequalities Guaranteeing the rights and benefits of workers is at the heart of strengthening the positive link between work and human development and weakening the negative connections. Policies could include: • Setting legislation and regulation. These should be on collective bargaining, unemployment insurance, the minimum wage, protection of workers’ rights and worker safety. Steps to ratify and implement the eight International Labour Organization conventions on work and to put in place legal frameworks for enforcement are also needed (figure 9). • Ensuring that people with disabilities can work. Measures can induce employers to provide an appropriate working environment. States can make efforts to change norms and perceptions, enhance the capabilities of people with disabilities, ensure workplace accessibility and access to appropriate technology and adopt affirmative action policies. • Making workers’ rights and safety a cross-border issue. Measures may include regulatory frameworks that extend to migrants, subregional remittance clearinghouses and more support to migrant source countries. These frameworks may constitute regional or subregional public goods. • Promoting collective action and trade unionism. Given globalization, the technological revolution and changes in labour markets, support is needed for emerging forms of collective action (such as the Self-Employed Women’s Association in India), innovative organizations for flexible workers (such as the Freelancers Union in the United States) and collective bargaining, including peaceful protests and demonstrations. 18 | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
FIGURE 9 Number of countries having ratified International Labour Organization conventions,1990 and 2014 Number of countries 1990 Abolition of 2014 Worst Forms of Child Labour,1999 (No.182) 179 Child Labour 1990 Minimum 39 2014A9e.1973N6138 167 Elimination of 1990 Discrimination (Employment 106 Discrimination in 2014 and Occupation).1958 (No.111) 172 Respect of Employment 1990 Equal Remuneration 109 and Occupation 20141951N0.100 171 1990 Abolition of Forced Labour 109 Elimination of Forced 20141957N0.105 174 and Compulsory 1990 Forced Labour 125 Labour 20141930Na.29 177 Freedom of 1990 Right to Organise and 110 Association 2014 Collective Bargaining.1949(No.9B) 64 and Collective 1990 Freedom of Association and Bargaining 2014 Protection of the Right to Organise.1948 (No.87) 153 Source:Huma 0f6 calculations based on ILO (2014c) Only 27 percent of the world's population have provided a source of social protection, is covered by comprehensive social protection, particularly in Latin America(such as Bolsa Guaranteeing rights which means that the security and choices of Familia in Brazil and Oportunidades,now many workers is severely limited.Action to called Prospera,in Mexico)and could be and benefits of extend social protection should focus on: replicated in other parts of the world. workers is at the .Pursuing well designed,targeted and run Undertaking direct employment guarantee heart of strengthening programmes.A basic and modest set of social programmes.Countries have also pursued security guarantees can be provided for all employment guarantees.The best known is the positive link citizens through social transfers in cash and the National Rural Employment Guarantee between work and kind.Resources can be mobilized through,for Scheme in India. human development example,progressive taxes,restructured ex- Targeting interventions for older people.Older penditures and wider contributory schemes. people's scope for choice in work is limited .Combining social protection with appropriate by access to pensions.Policy choices include work strategies.Programmes would provide expanding noncontributory basic social work to poor people while serving as a social pensions systems and exploring fully funded safety net. contributory pension systems(as in Chile, Assuring a living income.This would be a for example). basic minimum income for all,independent Because workers are getting a smaller share of of the job market,through cash transfers. total income and inequalities in opportunities Such a policy would help make unpaid work are still substantial,policy options should focus a more feasible and secure option. on: .Tailoring successful social protection pro- Formulating and implementing pro-poor grammes to local contexts.Programmes for growth strategies.This would entail creating cash transfers or conditional cash transfers work in sectors where most poor people Overview 19
Guaranteeing rights and benefits of workers is at the heart of strengthening the positive link between work and human development Only 27 percent of the world’s population is covered by comprehensive social protection, which means that the security and choices of many workers is severely limited. Action to extend social protection should focus on: • Pursuing well designed, targeted and run programmes. A basic and modest set of social security guarantees can be provided for all citizens through social transfers in cash and kind. Resources can be mobilized through, for example, progressive taxes, restructured expenditures and wider contributory schemes. • Combining social protection with appropriate work strategies. Programmes would provide work to poor people while serving as a social safety net. • Assuring a living income. This would be a basic minimum income for all, independent of the job market, through cash transfers. Such a policy would help make unpaid work a more feasible and secure option. • Tailoring successful social protection programmes to local contexts. Programmes for cash transfers or conditional cash transfers have provided a source of social protection, particularly in Latin America (such as Bolsa Família in Brazil and Oportunidades, now called Prospera, in Mexico) and could be replicated in other parts of the world. • Undertaking direct employment guarantee programmes. Countries have also pursued employment guarantees. The best known is the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India. • Targeting interventions for older people. Older people’s scope for choice in work is limited by access to pensions. Policy choices include expanding noncontributory basic social pensions systems and exploring fully funded contributory pension systems (as in Chile, for example). Because workers are getting a smaller share of total income and inequalities in opportunities are still substantial, policy options should focus on: • Formulating and implementing pro-poor growth strategies. This would entail creating work in sectors where most poor people FIGURE 9 Number of countries having ratified International Labour Organization conventions, 1990 and 2014 179 167 39 172 106 171 109 174 109 125 177 164 110 153 96 Minimum Age, 1973 (No. 138) Number of countries Worst Forms of Child Labour, 1999 (No. 182) Elimination of Forced and Compulsory Labour Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining, 1949 (No. 98) Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise, 1948 (No. 87) Abolition of Forced Labour, 1957 (No. 105) Discrimination (Employment and Occupation), 1958 (No. 111) Forced Labour, 1930(No. 29) Equal Remuneration, 1951 (No. 100) Elimination of Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation 1990 1990 2014 2014 Abolition of Child Labour 1990 1990 2014 2014 1990 1990 2014 2014 1990 1990 2014 2014 Source: Human Development Report Office calculations based on ILO (2014c). Overview | 19
work,improving poor houscholds'access to.Pursuing profit sharing and employee owner- such basic social services as health,educa- ship.Profit sharing with labour and giving tion,safe water and sanitation and providing employees shares in enterprises may help cut access to such productive resources as inputs, income inequality. credit and finance.These actions can also free ·Adopting and en时forcing proper distributive Profit sharing with up time spent in unpaid care work.Subsidies, policies.These could include progressive taxes targeted expenditures and pricing mecha- on income and wealth,regulations to reduce labour and giving nisms are other options. rent extraction,stricter regulation (particu- employees in Providing complementary support.Marketing larly of finance)and targeted public spending enterprises may help facilities,investments in physical infrastruc- on the poor. ture(particularly in rural areas),expansion of .Regulating the financial sector to reduce the re- cut income inequality extension services and labour-intensive tech- gressive effects ofcycles.Promoting investments nologies are conducive to equalizing work in the real economy can generate secure jobs, opportunities.The private sector can,with while increases in financial investment can be the right incentives,be encouraged to play a less stable and produce fewer jobs. major role in building and running physical Removing asymmetries between the mobility infrastructures. of labour and of capital.Labour mobility Democratizing education,particularly at does not match capital's given intrinsic dif the tertiary level,nationally and globally. ferences.As a matter of policy,industrial Countries place a high premium on tertiary countries promote capital mobility but education,but access is unequal and can discourage that of labour.Nonetheless, perpetuate inequalities in work,as seen regulating capital movements can reduce within countries(most workers with a ter- macroeconomic instability and middle- tiary education come from higher income income traps in developing countries, families)and between countries(countries preventing capital from moving overseas with greater increases in tertiary education when wages become too high.Migration are industrial,with already high attainment policies can at a minimum reduce the risks in this segment). of migration. Targeted actions are needed for balancing care and paid work, making work sustainable,addressing youth unemployment, encouraging creative and voluntary work and providing work in conflict and post-conflict situations Addressing imbalances in paid and unpaid work and incentives for retention.The criteria opportunities between women and men may for moving men and women into senior benefit from the following policy measures: positions should be identical.Mentoring and Expanding and strengthening gender-sen- coaching can empower women in the work- sitive policies for female wage employment. place,for example,by using successful senior Programmes should address skills devel- female managers as role models. opment through education,particularly Specific interventions.Legislative measures are in math and science,training that matches needed to reduce inequalities between wom- market demands and access to continuing en and men in harassment in the workplace, professional development. discrimination in hiring,access to finance Actions to increase representation of wom- and access to technology. en in senior decisionmaking positions..Focusing on maternal and paternal parental Representation can be enhanced in public leave.Rather than pursuing a totally gen- and private sectors through policies on hu- der-neutral approach,if a bonus is granted man resources,selection and recruitment, to parents who share parental leave more 20 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
Profit sharing with labour and giving employees in enterprises may help cut income inequality work, improving poor households’ access to such basic social services as health, education, safe water and sanitation and providing access to such productive resources as inputs, credit and finance. These actions can also free up time spent in unpaid care work. Subsidies, targeted expenditures and pricing mechanisms are other options. • Providing complementary support. Marketing facilities, investments in physical infrastructure (particularly in rural areas), expansion of extension services and labour-intensive technologies are conducive to equalizing work opportunities. The private sector can, with the right incentives, be encouraged to play a major role in building and running physical infrastructures. • Democratizing education, particularly at the tertiary level, nationally and globally. Countries place a high premium on tertiary education, but access is unequal and can perpetuate inequalities in work, as seen within countries (most workers with a tertiary education come from higher income families) and between countries (countries with greater increases in tertiary education are industrial, with already high attainment in this segment). • Pursuing profit sharing and employee ownership. Profit sharing with labour and giving employees shares in enterprises may help cut income inequality. • Adopting and enforcing proper distributive policies. These could include progressive taxes on income and wealth, regulations to reduce rent extraction, stricter regulation (particularly of finance) and targeted public spending on the poor. • Regulating the financial sector to reduce the regressive effects of cycles. Promoting investments in the real economy can generate secure jobs, while increases in financial investment can be less stable and produce fewer jobs. • Removing asymmetries between the mobility of labour and of capital. Labour mobility does not match capital’s given intrinsic differences. As a matter of policy, industrial countries promote capital mobility but discourage that of labour. Nonetheless, regulating capital movements can reduce macroeconomic instability and middleincome traps in developing countries, preventing capital from moving overseas when wages become too high. Migration policies can at a minimum reduce the risks of migration. Targeted actions are needed for balancing care and paid work, making work sustainable, addressing youth unemployment, encouraging creative and voluntary work and providing work in conflict and post-conflict situations Addressing imbalances in paid and unpaid work opportunities between women and men may benefit from the following policy measures: • Expanding and strengthening gender-sensitive policies for female wage employment. Programmes should address skills development through education, particularly in math and science, training that matches market demands and access to continuing professional development. • Actions to increase representation of women in senior decisionmaking positions. Representation can be enhanced in public and private sectors through policies on human resources, selection and recruitment, and incentives for retention. The criteria for moving men and women into senior positions should be identical. Mentoring and coaching can empower women in the workplace, for example, by using successful senior female managers as role models. • Specific interventions. Legislative measures are needed to reduce inequalities between women and men in harassment in the workplace, discrimination in hiring, access to finance and access to technology. • Focusing on maternal and paternal parental leave. Rather than pursuing a totally gender-neutral approach, if a bonus is granted to parents who share parental leave more 20 | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015