Contents Foreword CHAPTER 5 Acknowledgements Moving to sustainable work 131 Setting the context:goals for sustainable development 131 Overview Sustainability in the human development framework 131 CHAPTER 1 Work and sustainable development 136 Sustainable Development Goals revisited-what they imply for work Work and human development-analytical links 144 29 Conclusions 148 Work is broader than jobs 29 Work in different stages of the lifecycle 30 CHAPTER 6 Work enhances human development 32 Enhancing human development through work 151 The link between work and human development is not automatic 34 Strategies for creating work opportunities 151 Work that damages human development 40 Strategies for ensuring workers'well-being 160 Workers at risk 44 Strategies for targeted action 169 Conclusions 46 An agenda for action-three pillars 178 CHAPTER 2 Conclusions 181 Human development and work:progress and challenges 的 Notes 187 The scale of human progress and contributions of work 55 References 190 Serious human deprivations,but considerable human potential not in use 58 Further human development challenges 64 STATISTICAL ANNEX Human development-looking forward 71 Readers guide 203 Statistical tables CHAPTER 3 1.Human Development Index and its components 208 The changing world of work 77 2.Human Development Index trends,1990-2014 212 Structural transformation of work 公 3.Inequality-adiusted Human Development Index 216 4. Technological revolution 80 Gender Development Index 220 5. Gender Inequality Index 224 Globalizing work 83 6. Multidimensional Poverty Index:developing countries 228 Work in the digital age 吗 7. Multidimensional Poverty Index:changes over time 230 New frontiers for work 89 8. Population trends 234 The modern workforce 95 9. Health outcomes 238 Promises as yet unfulfilled 98 10.Education achievements 242 Implications for human development 102 11.National income and composition of resources 246 12.Environmental sustainability 250 Conclusions 103 13.Work and employment 254 14.Human security 258 CHAPTER 4 15.International integration 262 Imbalances in paid and unpaid work 107 16.Supplementary indicators:perceptions of well-being 266 Disparities in the world of paid work 108 Regions 270 Imbalances in unpaid work 116 Statistical references 271 Emerging challenges-care gaps,health shocks and climate change 119 Towards a rebalancing-expanding choices,empowering people 121 Conclusions 122 Contents vii
Contents Foreword iii Acknowledgements v Overview 1 CHAPTER 1 Work and human development—analytical links 29 Work is broader than jobs 29 Work in different stages of the lifecycle 30 Work enhances human development 32 The link between work and human development is not automatic 34 Work that damages human development 40 Workers at risk 44 Conclusions 46 CHAPTER 2 Human development and work: progress and challenges 55 The scale of human progress and contributions of work 55 Serious human deprivations, but considerable human potential not in use 58 Further human development challenges 64 Human development—looking forward 71 CHAPTER 3 The changing world of work 77 Structural transformation of work 77 Technological revolution 80 Globalizing work 83 Work in the digital age 87 New frontiers for work 89 The modern workforce 95 Promises as yet unfulfilled 98 Implications for human development 102 Conclusions 103 CHAPTER 4 Imbalances in paid and unpaid work 107 Disparities in the world of paid work 108 Imbalances in unpaid work 116 Emerging challenges—care gaps, health shocks and climate change 119 Towards a rebalancing—expanding choices, empowering people 121 Conclusions 122 CHAPTER 5 Moving to sustainable work 131 Setting the context: goals for sustainable development 131 Sustainability in the human development framework 131 Work and sustainable development 136 Sustainable Development Goals revisited—what they imply for work 144 Conclusions 148 CHAPTER 6 Enhancing human development through work 151 Strategies for creating work opportunities 151 Strategies for ensuring workers’ well-being 160 Strategies for targeted action 169 An agenda for action—three pillars 178 Conclusions 181 Notes 187 References 190 STATISTICAL ANNEX Readers guide 203 Statistical tables 1. Human Development Index and its components 208 2. Human Development Index trends, 1990–2014 212 3. Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index 216 4. Gender Development Index 220 5. Gender Inequality Index 224 6. Multidimensional Poverty Index: developing countries 228 7. Multidimensional Poverty Index: changes over time 230 8. Population trends 234 9. Health outcomes 238 10. Education achievements 242 11. National income and composition of resources 246 12. Environmental sustainability 250 13. Work and employment 254 14. Human security 258 15. International integration 262 16. Supplementary indicators: perceptions of well-being 266 Regions 270 Statistical references 271 Contents | vii
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS 6.16 Cash for care work 172 Building peace,restoring hope:women's role in nation building-Leymah Gbowee 40 6.17 Gender policies in Norway 173 Working towards the elimination of child labour-Kailash Satyarthi 42 6.18 Turkey's private sector initiative on overcoming skills mismatch at the Inequality and labour markets-Robert Reich 66 local level 174 6.19 The "social wage"of work 176 Creative work-Orhan Pamuk 96 Central Asia:emerged region,emerging challenges and opportunities for women 6.20 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 177 -Roza Otunbayeva 116 6.21 Flexicurity in Denmark 180 Community participation for improving rural livelihoods-lessons from the past 6.22 Four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 180 -Maithripala Sirisena 134 Recyclers:from waste pickers to global agents of sustainable development FIGURES Nohra Padilla 138 1 Work engages people all over the world in different ways 2 Building skills and protecting workers for inclusive growth-Benigno S.Aquinol 158 2 Work and human development are synergistic 3 3 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development 6 BOXES 4 Speed of adoption of new technologies in the United States 7 1 Human development-a comprehensive approach 2 5 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 2 Measuring human development 3 6 Women's representation in senior management in business,by region,2015 12 3 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 21 7 The matrix of sustainable work 14 4 Flexicurity in Denmark 23 8 Policy options for enhancing human development through work 17 5 The four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 23 9 Number of countries having ratifed International Labour Organization 1.1 What is work? 30 conventions,1990 and 2014 19 1.2 Measures of quality of work 35 1.1 Work encompasses more than just jobs 1.3 What brings happiness-having a job or something beyond it? 36 1.2 Workers from countries with low pension coverage tend to stay in the 2.1 Uneven access to the digital revolution 令 labour market after age 65,while workers from countries with high pension 2.2 Impact of long-term youth unemployment 64 coverage tend to retire earlier 32 2.3 Alternative measures of human well-being 72 1.3 Work and human development are synergistic 33 3.1 An encapsulated history of work 78 1.4 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development % 1.5 Women and girls account for a larger share of forced labour than men 3.2 The fourth industrial revolution 82 and boys,2012 41 3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina-local development through outsourcing 85 1.6 Annual profits from forced labour have been highest in Asia and the Pacific 3.4 Challenges for start-ups in the Arab States 92 since 2006 必 3.5 Initiatives to improve crowdworking 92 1.7 Over 2007-2010 a substantial number of trafficked victims were trafficked 4.1 Monetary valuation of unpaid care work 117 for sexual exploitation 45 4.2 Credits for long-term elder care in Japan 120 2.1 Progress on the Human Development Index since 1990 has been fairly 4.3 Paid parental leave,including mandatory paternity leave 123 steady over time and across all developing regions 西 5.1 The Sustainable Development Goals and human development 132 2.2 Between 199 and 2014 the number of people living in countries in higher 5.2 Transforming ship breaking:promoting sustainable work by implementing human development classifications rose,while the number of people living in standards 140 countries in the low human development classification fell 56 5.3 Implementing Tajikistan's National Programmen Application of 2.3 There is no automatic link between income and human development,2014 51 Renewable Energy Sources 143 2.4 Income poverty in Kyrgyzstan would be much higher without remittances 58 5.4 Big data:some applications for work and the Sustainable Development Goals 145 2.5 Disaggregated Human Development Index values can unmask national 6.1 National employment strategies 152 averages:Ethiopia 58 6.2 Self-employment programme of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 153 2.6 Children in South Africa are not only disproportionately poor,but also more 6.3 Labour standard to tackle informal economy-a new milestone 154 concentrated in the poorest households,2012 0 2.7 Access to basic social services in Moldova is unequal by rural-urban locale. 6.4 M-Pesa-an innovative approach to financial inclusion 155 2014 60 6.5 Remaining competitive by improving working conditions 156 2.8 East Asia and the Pacific had the greatest reduction in Human Development 6.6 Cambodia-a success story in the globalized world of work 157 Index shortfall among developing country regions over 1990-2014 60 6.7 Protecting the rights of sex workers 162 2.9 Rural areas of China have a higher prevalence of multidimensional poverty 6.8 The Self-Employed Women's Association-the world's largest trade union than urban areas,2012 62 of informal workers 164 2.10 Extent of human deprivations in the world 62 6.9 Rural Employment Opportunities for Public Assets in Bangladesh 166 2.11 The youth unemployment rate is highest in the Arab States,2008-2014 64 6.10 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India-a milestone 167 2.12 Around 80 percent of the world's people have just 6 percent of global 6.11 Chile's reforms to the reform:more solidarity,more contributions 168 wealth,2014 雪 6.12 How Montenegrins value tertiary education 169 2.13 In low human development countries the main driver of a high dependency 6.13 Bolsa Familia-Brazil's conditional cash transfer programme 170 ratio is a young population,2014 6.14 Suggested measures for reducing inequalities 170 2.14n1950 a third of the world's population lived in cities.in200 nearly half 6.15 Positive parental leave systems 172 were city dwellers and by 2050 more than two-thirds will be 67 viii HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS Building peace, restoring hope: women’s role in nation building — Leymah Gbowee 40 Working towards the elimination of child labour — Kailash Satyarthi 42 Inequality and labour markets — Robert Reich 66 Creative work — Orhan Pamuk 96 Central Asia: emerged region, emerging challenges and opportunities for women — Roza Otunbayeva 116 Community participation for improving rural livelihoods—lessons from the past — Maithripala Sirisena 134 Recyclers: from waste pickers to global agents of sustainable development — Nohra Padilla 138 Building skills and protecting workers for inclusive growth — Benigno S. Aquino III 158 BOXES 1 Human development—a comprehensive approach 2 2 Measuring human development 3 3 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 21 4 Flexicurity in Denmark 23 5 The four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 23 1.1 What is work? 30 1.2 Measures of quality of work 35 1.3 What brings happiness—having a job or something beyond it? 36 2.1 Uneven access to the digital revolution 59 2.2 Impact of long-term youth unemployment 64 2.3 Alternative measures of human well-being 72 3.1 An encapsulated history of work 78 3.2 The fourth industrial revolution 82 3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina—local development through outsourcing 85 3.4 Challenges for start-ups in the Arab States 92 3.5 Initiatives to improve crowdworking 92 4.1 Monetary valuation of unpaid care work 117 4.2 Credits for long-term elder care in Japan 120 4.3 Paid parental leave, including mandatory paternity leave 123 5.1 The Sustainable Development Goals and human development 132 5.2 Transforming ship breaking: promoting sustainable work by implementing standards 140 5.3 Implementing Tajikistan’s National Programme on Application of Renewable Energy Sources 143 5.4 Big data: some applications for work and the Sustainable Development Goals 145 6.1 National employment strategies 152 6.2 Self-employment programme of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 153 6.3 Labour standard to tackle informal economy—a new milestone 154 6.4 M-Pesa—an innovative approach to financial inclusion 155 6.5 Remaining competitive by improving working conditions 156 6.6 Cambodia—a success story in the globalized world of work 157 6.7 Protecting the rights of sex workers 162 6.8 The Self-Employed Women’s Association—the world’s largest trade union of informal workers 164 6.9 Rural Employment Opportunities for Public Assets in Bangladesh 166 6.10 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India—a milestone 167 6.11 Chile’s reforms to the reform: more solidarity, more contributions 168 6.12 How Montenegrins value tertiary education 169 6.13 Bolsa Família—Brazil’s conditional cash transfer programme 170 6.14 Suggested measures for reducing inequalities 170 6.15 Positive parental leave systems 172 6.16 Cash for care work 172 6.17 Gender policies in Norway 173 6.18 Turkey’s private sector initiative on overcoming skills mismatch at the local level 174 6.19 The “social wage” of work 176 6.20 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 177 6.21 Flexicurity in Denmark 180 6.22 Four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 180 FIGURES 1 Work engages people all over the world in different ways 2 2 Work and human development are synergistic 3 3 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development 6 4 Speed of adoption of new technologies in the United States 7 5 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 11 6 Women’s representation in senior management in business, by region, 2015 12 7 The matrix of sustainable work 14 8 Policy options for enhancing human development through work 17 9 Number of countries having ratified International Labour Organization conventions, 1990 and 2014 19 1.1 Work encompasses more than just jobs 31 1.2 Workers from countries with low pension coverage tend to stay in the labour market after age 65, while workers from countries with high pension coverage tend to retire earlier 32 1.3 Work and human development are synergistic 33 1.4 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development 41 1.5 Women and girls account for a larger share of forced labour than men and boys, 2012 41 1.6 Annual profits from forced labour have been highest in Asia and the Pacific since 2006 44 1.7 Over 2007–2010 a substantial number of trafficked victims were trafficked for sexual exploitation 45 2.1 Progress on the Human Development Index since 1990 has been fairly steady over time and across all developing regions 56 2.2 Between 1990 and 2014 the number of people living in countries in higher human development classifications rose, while the number of people living in countries in the low human development classification fell 56 2.3 There is no automatic link between income and human development, 2014 57 2.4 Income poverty in Kyrgyzstan would be much higher without remittances 58 2.5 Disaggregated Human Development Index values can unmask national averages: Ethiopia 58 2.6 Children in South Africa are not only disproportionately poor, but also more concentrated in the poorest households, 2012 60 2.7 Access to basic social services in Moldova is unequal by rural–urban locale, 2014 60 2.8 East Asia and the Pacific had the greatest reduction in Human Development Index shortfall among developing country regions over 1990–2014 60 2.9 Rural areas of China have a higher prevalence of multidimensional poverty than urban areas, 2012 62 2.10 Extent of human deprivations in the world 62 2.11 The youth unemployment rate is highest in the Arab States, 2008–2014 64 2.12 Around 80 percent of the world’s people have just 6 percent of global wealth, 2014 65 2.13 In low human development countries the main driver of a high dependency ratio is a young population, 2014 67 2.14 In 1950 a third of the world’s population lived in cities, in 2000 nearly half were city dwellers and by 2050 more than two-thirds will be 67 viii | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015
2.15 Undemourishment and obesity rates vary by region,most recent year available 70 4.12 Men have more time for leisure and social activities than women do across 3.1 Although the importance of agriculture to economies may be dropping.the all human development groupings,most recent year available 119 importance of agriculture to workers,albeit declining.remains high 79 4.13 Grandparents often spend time caring for grandchildren,2006-2007 119 3.2 Adoption of new technologies in the United States has been impressively quick 82 4.14 The burden of elder care will rise much more quickly in China than in the 3.3 The change in technology penetration around the world between 1995 and 2015 United States 120 was substantial and holds promise to benefit people around the world 5.1 There is a strong positive association between energy consumption and the 3.4 The digital revolution has accelerated the global production of goods and Human Development Index for developing countries 136 services,particularly digital trade 5.2 The largest share of global employment in agriculture is in East Asia and 3.5 The digital component of global flows has increased-selected examples 88 South Asia 141 3.6 Opportunities for mobile applications for agriculture and rural development 89 6.1 More than 170 countries have ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention of 3.7 Mobile subscriptions and connections in Sub-Saharan Africa are predicted to 1951 and the Discrimination(Employment and Occupation)Convention of 1958 161 rise substantially between 2013 and 2020 % 6.2 By 2014.65 countries had laws prohibiting discrimination in employment 3.8 Between 1970 and 2014 the number of patents granted by the United States based on sexual orientation in at least part of their territory-more than triple Patent and Trademark Office increased almost fivefold 94 the number 15 years ago 162 3.9 Japan led the way in total number of patents granted in 2013 94 6.3 Globally.the same general labour law that covers other workers covers only 3.10 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 9 10 percent of domestic workers,2010 163 3.11 In the Netherlands and the United States productivity gains have not 6.4 The relationship between mean years of schooling and labour force participation for women shows a shallow U shape 171 translated into higher wages for the most part 100 3.12 The growth rate of productivity has not had the exceptional boost expected with the advent of the digital revolution 100 MAPS 3.13 Workers overall are getting a smaller share of total corporate income based 5.1 Fertilizer use varies widely 142 on analysis from 27 developed countries and 28 developing countries ⊙ 5.2 The employment potential of renewable energy is considerable 146 3.14 The income shares of high-skill labour have beengoing up.while the share of medium-and low-skill labour has been going down 101 TABLES 3.15 The sharp increase of work compensation to top salary eamers has benefited a minority.cumulative change since 1980 101 1 Sustainable Development Goals 15 4.1 Men dominate the world of paid work,and women the world of unpaid work 107 1.1 Employment rate of people with disabilities,low-and high-income countries 4.2 Women are less likely to be engaged in paid work,as shown by the labour A1.1 Work with exploitation,risks and insecurities 47 force participation rate 108 A1.2 Different types of employment 51 4.3 In 2015,72 percent of working-age (ages 15 and older)men were employed, 2.1 Gender Development Index values by region.2014 59 compared with 47 percent of women 109 2.2 Countries with the most people in multidimensional poverty 61 4.4 A large part of the wage gap between men and women is unexplained 110 2.3 Human Development Index and Inequality-adjusted Human Development 4.5 Women are underrepresented in senior business management across Index values for selected regions,2014 66 all regions,2015 111 A2.1 Balance sheet of human development 74 4.6 Women are less likely to occupy positions of leadership in public service,2014 111 4.1 Domestic workers in India by sector,2004-05(thousands) 115 4.7 Fewer women than men are represented among both early-stage and 4.2 Migrant domestic workers in Gulf Cooperation Council countries 115 established entrepreneurs.2014 112 A4.1 Time use 125 4.8 Across most parts of the world women are more likely to be in vulnerable 5.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and employment by sector 135 employment,2013 113 5.2 Coping with industrywide closures 139 4.9 In South Asia agriculture accounts for more than 60 percent of 5.3 Number of home solar systems installed and people without access to female employment 114 electricity(selected countries).various years 143 4.10 In rural Malawi women are more frequently unpaid,even when working 5.4 Jobs generated from clean energy 146 outside the home,2008 114 5.5 The demand for teachers 147 4.11 Women take the major burden of unpaid care work,most recent year available 118 5.6 The demand for health workers 148 A6.1 Status of fundamental labour rights conventions 182 Contents ix
2.15 Undernourishment and obesity rates vary by region, most recent year available 70 3.1 Although the importance of agriculture to economies may be dropping, the importance of agriculture to workers, albeit declining, remains high 79 3.2 Adoption of new technologies in the United States has been impressively quick 82 3.3 The change in technology penetration around the world between 1995 and 2015 was substantial and holds promise to benefit people around the world 83 3.4 The digital revolution has accelerated the global production of goods and services, particularly digital trade 87 3.5 The digital component of global flows has increased—selected examples 88 3.6 Opportunities for mobile applications for agriculture and rural development 89 3.7 Mobile subscriptions and connections in Sub-Saharan Africa are predicted to rise substantially between 2013 and 2020 89 3.8 Between 1970 and 2014 the number of patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office increased almost fivefold 94 3.9 Japan led the way in total number of patents granted in 2013 94 3.10 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 99 3.11 In the Netherlands and the United States productivity gains have not translated into higher wages for the most part 100 3.12 The growth rate of productivity has not had the exceptional boost expected with the advent of the digital revolution 100 3.13 Workers overall are getting a smaller share of total corporate income based on analysis from 27 developed countries and 28 developing countries 101 3.14 The income shares of high-skill labour have been going up, while the share of medium- and low-skill labour has been going down 101 3.15 The sharp increase of work compensation to top salary earners has benefited a minority, cumulative change since 1980 101 4.1 Men dominate the world of paid work, and women the world of unpaid work 107 4.2 Women are less likely to be engaged in paid work, as shown by the labour force participation rate 108 4.3 In 2015, 72 percent of working-age (ages 15 and older) men were employed, compared with 47 percent of women 109 4.4 A large part of the wage gap between men and women is unexplained 110 4.5 Women are underrepresented in senior business management across all regions, 2015 111 4.6 Women are less likely to occupy positions of leadership in public service, 2014 111 4.7 Fewer women than men are represented among both early-stage and established entrepreneurs, 2014 112 4.8 Across most parts of the world women are more likely to be in vulnerable employment, 2013 113 4.9 In South Asia agriculture accounts for more than 60 percent of female employment 114 4.10 In rural Malawi women are more frequently unpaid, even when working outside the home, 2008 114 4.11 Women take the major burden of unpaid care work, most recent year available 118 4.12 Men have more time for leisure and social activities than women do across all human development groupings, most recent year available 119 4.13 Grandparents often spend time caring for grandchildren, 2006–2007 119 4.14 The burden of elder care will rise much more quickly in China than in the United States 120 5.1 There is a strong positive association between energy consumption and the Human Development Index for developing countries 136 5.2 The largest share of global employment in agriculture is in East Asia and South Asia 141 6.1 More than 170 countries have ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention of 1951 and the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention of 1958 161 6.2 By 2014, 65 countries had laws prohibiting discrimination in employment based on sexual orientation in at least part of their territory—more than triple the number 15 years ago 162 6.3 Globally, the same general labour law that covers other workers covers only 10 percent of domestic workers, 2010 163 6.4 The relationship between mean years of schooling and labour force participation for women shows a shallow U shape 171 MAPS 5.1 Fertilizer use varies widely 142 5.2 The employment potential of renewable energy is considerable 146 TABLES 1 Sustainable Development Goals 15 1.1 Employment rate of people with disabilities, low- and high-income countries 38 A1.1 Work with exploitation, risks and insecurities 47 A1.2 Different types of employment 51 2.1 Gender Development Index values by region, 2014 59 2.2 Countries with the most people in multidimensional poverty 61 2.3 Human Development Index and Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index values for selected regions, 2014 65 A2.1 Balance sheet of human development 74 4.1 Domestic workers in India by sector, 2004–05 (thousands) 115 4.2 Migrant domestic workers in Gulf Cooperation Council countries 115 A4.1 Time use 125 5.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and employment by sector 135 5.2 Coping with industrywide closures 139 5.3 Number of home solar systems installed and people without access to electricity (selected countries), various years 143 5.4 Jobs generated from clean energy 146 5.5 The demand for teachers 147 5.6 The demand for health workers 148 A6.1 Status of fundamental labour rights conventions 182 Contents | ix
Overview Work for human development
Overview Work for human development
Infographic:Dimensions of human development Knowledge nand heai cy enhancing human capabiltie Cent standard of living Human development Participation and communitye in political Creating conditions for human develo Promotingq and socialjustice Environmental Sustainability Human security and rights
Infographic: Dimensions of human development Human development Decent standard of livin g Long and healthy life Participation in political a nd community life Environmental sustainability Human security and rights Knowledge Directly enhancing human capabilities Creating conditions for human development Promoting equality and social justic e