AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION yien who had not succeeded in the higher examinations but whose higher ∫he2g, ,“imperial student.” The chin-shib,chii-jen,and kung-sheng had risen above the sheng-yiian. Together with the many who had remained they formed this most important section of the gentry qualified through academic rating,the group we have called the "regulars.' From the holders of the higher academic degrees,the and kang-sbeng,government officials were selected.Indeed,the gaining of such degrees was the regular way to officialdom.The higher officials came almost exclusively through this regular route,as can be seen in official lists. As officials these men entered government service and carried out functions for the government,but at the same time they remained gentry of their hom areas,and their official rank increased their prestige as gentry. The other way of becoming a member of the gentry was through the purchase of an academic title.This title was that of chien-sheng,student of the Imperial College.The great number of cbien-sbeng,with very few exceptions,did not actually move to the capital to study in the Imperial College.For them the title was important because it admitted them to gentry status and privileges and was an opening for further advancement and official positions.Also,the title of eang-sbeng,mentioned in the first group,was sometimes attained not through examination but through purchase This "irregular"way of attaining gentry status could also lead to official rank and position.Those who purchased academic titles could then purchase official rank or position.Indeed,the academic title and the official rank or position were often purchased together.The "irregular"route led only to the lower offices,1s but such official rank,even though "irregularly"ob tained,raised the holder's position as a member of the gentry erial stu cted from distric “品品 es of liee plares in Heshow the licens ofsscdto commoner ces available 51318-321
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 5 ';^uan who had not succeeded in the higher examinations but whose higher scholastic standing was recognized were granted the academic title of kungsheng, "imperial student." ^ The chin-shih, chii-jen, and kung-sheng had risen above the sheng-yiian. Together with the many who had remained sheng-yiian, they formed this most important section of the gentry qualified through academic rating, the group we have called the "regulars." From the holders of the higher academic degrees, the chin-shih, chu-jen, and kung-sheng, government officials were selected. Indeed, the gaining of v^ such degrees was the regular way to officialdom. The higher officials came almost exclusively through this regular route, as can be seen in official lists." As officials these men entered government service and carried out functions for the government, but at the same time they remained gentry of their home areas, and their official rank increased their prestige as gentry. The other way of becoming a member of the gentry was through the i^-^' purchase of an academic title. This title was that of chien-sheng, student of the Imperial College.^ ^ The great number of chien-sheng, with very few exceptions, did not actually move to the capital to study in the Imperial College. For them the title was important because it admitted them to gentry status and privileges and was an opening for further advancement and official positions. Also, the title of kung-sheng, mentioned in the first group, was sometimes attained not through examination but through purchase. This "irregular" way of attaining gentry status could also lead to official:.^'' rank and position. Those who purchased academic titles could then purchase official rank or position. Indeed, the academic title and the official rank or position were often purchased together.^' The "irregular" route led only "> ,^ to the lower offices,^^ but such official rank, even though "irregularly" obtained, raised the holder's position as a member of the gentry. Ch'ing times it became the degree held by those who had succeeded in the metropolitan and palace examinations. See Tzu-hai, s. v.\ Ku Yen-wu, op. cit., 16/5 a-b. ® Kung-sheng is translated as "imperial students" since they were selected from district or prefeaural colleges for presentation at the capital, theoretically to study in the Imperial College. ^** See Ta-Ch'ing chin-shen ch'uan-shu, 1S81, or other years. ^^ Chien-sheng literally means the students of the kuo-hsueh or kno-tzu-chien, the Imperial College. On the organization of the kuo-tzu-chien , see for instance Ch'in-ting ta-Ch'ing hui-tien, chiian 16. ^^ See photostatic copies of actual license plates in Hsii Ta-ling, op. cit. Plate III shows the license of chien-sheng issued to a commoner in return for payment of 33 taels on Kuang-hsii 28/9/19. Plate IV shows the license of purchased office, assistant hsieu magistrate, issued to the same person on the same day. In the license he is already referred to as chien-sheng. ^^ Civil offices available for purchase were only those of the fifth rank and below in the capital, and of the fourth rank and below in the provinces; military offices available for purchase were of the third rank and below in both the capital and the provinces. For a list of offices that could be purchased, see Ch'ing-kuo hsin-cheng-fa fen-lun, 5/318-321
6 THE CHINESE GENTRY If one acquired gentry status by purchasing an academic title,one could still become a"regular"gentry member later.The holders of such purchased academic titles could participate in the higher examinations for the cbi-jen and degrees.If they passed these examinations,they were then considered "regular"members of the gentry.Some candidates bought the cbien-sbeng title simply to gain speedier admission to the higher exami- nations. Among the gentry were also those who had gained their position by acquiring military titles,grades,degrees,or official ranks.There existed in the examination system a special section of military examinations leading to the academic grades and degrecs of military) military cb-je(wcbjen),and military cin-sib(wcbin). The holders of higher military degrees could become military officers.Men of military education could also buy the academic title of chien-sheng and from there move on to military office.The majority of the officers of the Chinese government army,however,rose from the ranks.They had not been gentry first,but the official rank thus obtained gave them gentry status. These military men from the ranks,who were a much smaller and less influential group within the gentry,were an exception to the general rule of educational qualification,since they had gained their gentry status without having first obtained an academic title,grade,or degree A CONVENIENT DIVISION OF THE GENTRY INTO TWO STRATA Each of the ranks,degrees,grades and titles that qualified for general gentry status carried different privileges and degrees of prestige.A detailed description is necessary to show the whole complex picture of gentry power and manifold functions.Overlying the details of this stratification,however, there can be seen a horizontal division of the whole gentry group into an upper and a lower layer. Within the lower group of such a division will fall the large number of the first examination grade,the sbeng-yian,and the buyers of the academic title,the cbien-sheng,as well as a few other holders of minor titles The upper layer will be made up of the holders of the higher examination degrees and those who held official titles,whether combined with higher degrees or not. It has already been pointed out that the staff of the government adminis- tration was derived from the gentry.In this regard,the upper gentry had a distinct advantage over the large lower group.Members of the upper gentry Kwo-wen cbow-pao,7/16,p.1:cf.infra,III,note 4
u 6 THE CHINESE GENTRY If one acquired gentry status by purchasing an academic title, one could still become a "regular" gentry member later. The holders of such purchased academic titles could participate in the higher examinations for the chii-jen and chin-shih degrees. If they passed these examinations, they were then considered "regular" members of the gentry. Some candidates bought the chien-sheng title simply to gain speedier admission to the higher examinations.^^ Among the gentry were also those who had gained their position by ^'acquiring military titles, grades, degrees, or official ranks. There existed in the examination system a special section of military examinations leading to the academic grades and degrees of military sheng-yiian {wu-sheng-yiian), military chii-jen {tvu-chii-jen), and military chin-shih {wu-chin-shih). The holders of higher military degrees could become military officers. Men of military education could also buy the academic title of chien-sheng and from there move on to military office. The majority of the officers of the Chinese government army, however, rose from the ranks. They had not been gentry first, but the official rank thus obtained gave them gentry status. These military men from the ranks, who were a much smaller and less influential group within the gentry, were an exception to the general rule of educational qualification, since they had gained their gentry status without having first obtained an academic title, grade, or degree. A CONVENIENT DIVISION OF THE GENTRY INTO TWO STRATA Each of the ranks, degrees, grades and titles that qualified for general gentry status carried different privileges and degrees of prestige. A detailed description is necessary to show the whole complex picture of gentry power and manifold functions. Overlying the details of this stratification, however, there can be seen a horizontal division of the whole gentry group into an upper and a lower layer. Within the lower group of such a division wi.U fall the large number of the first examination grade, the sheng-yiian, and the buyers of the academic title, the chien-sheng, as well as a few other holders of minor titles. The upper layer will be made up of the holders of the higher examination degrees and those who held official titles, whether combined with higher degrees or not. It has already been pointed out that the staff of the government administration was derived from the gentry. In this regard, the upper gentry had a distinct advantage over the large lower group. Members of the upper gentry " Kuo-wen chou-pao, 7/16, p. 1; cf. infra. III, note 4
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 7 were officials or those who were qualified for appointment to office,while members of the lower gentry had yet to purchase office or pass higher ex. aminations.In official publications,such as the Ta-Ch'ing bui-tien sbib-li TABLE 1 SIMPLIFIED LIST OF GENTRY GROUPINGS Regular Irregular Officials Officials Upper kg-beng（with several subgroups Lower sbeng-yian (with ("Precedents on the Collected Statutes of the Ch'ing Dynasty"),and in local the lower group was discussed under the heading bsiieb-bsiao lswhile the upper group was discussed under the head rng-cbii,or bsiian-cbi,meaning"selection of officials." The upper gentry were more privileged than the lower gentry and generally led the lower gentry in performing their functions.While detailed illustrations of gentry privileges and functions as well as statistical studieson activitiesof upper and lower gentry members will be presented in later sections,a few words will be useful here to justify this two-strata division.In the payment of land tax,for instance,the upper gentry were in an even better position to resist excessive charges,to gain partial or total exemption,or to participate in the sharing of the public revenue.In the organizing of local corps,the upper gentry had a larger control while the lower gentry usually headed smaller units.This distinction was also made within the clans.In ancestral rites in some clans,it was provided that the one highest in official rank should preside,and the meat used at the sacrifice was distributed according to the rank of office previously held and the degree or grade received in examina tions In one clan only the tablets of members who had held ranks as off- cials and of those who had passed the provincial examinations were admitted free of charge into the ancestral temple upon death.All others had to pay fifty taels in silver for this privilege. The division between upper and lower gentry actually existed quite formally officials than to lower officials or those Hu Hsien-chin,The Common Descent Gromp in China and Iis Fanctions,12
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 7 were officials or those who were quahfied for appointment to office, while y^ members of the lower gentry had yet to purchase office or pass higher ex- aminations. In official publications, such as the Ta-Ch'ing hul-tlen shih-U TABLE 1 Simplified List of Gentry Groupings Regular Irregular upper Officials chin-shih cbil-jen kung-sheng (with several subgroups) Officials Lower sheng-yiian (with several subgroups) chien-sheng purchased kung-sheng ("Precedents on the Collected Statutes of the Ch'ing Dynasty"), and in local gazetteers, the lower group was discussed under the heading hsileh-hsiao, "schools," while the upper group was discussed under the heading k'o-chil, kung-chil, or hsuan-chil, meaning "selection of officials." The upper gentry were more privileged than the lower gentry and generally led the lower gentry in performing their functions. While detailed illustrations of gentry privileges and functions as well as statistical studies on activities of upper and lower gentry members will be presented in later sections, a few words will be useful here to justify this two-strata division. In the payment of land tax, for instance, the upper gentry were in an even better position to resist excessive charges, to gain partial or total exemption, or to participate in the sharing of the public revenue.^'^ In the organizing of local corps, the upper gentry had a larger control while the lower gentry usually headed smaller units.^" This distinction was also made within the clans. In ancestral rites in some clans, it was provided that the one highest in official rank should preside, and the meat used at the sacrifice was distributed according to the rank of office previously held and the degree or grade received in examinations.^" In one clan only the tablets of members who had held ranks as offi- cials and of those who had passed the provincial examinations were admitted free of charge into the ancestral temple upon death. All others had to pay fifty taels in silver for this privilege.^^ The division ber^^een upper and lower gentry actually existed quite formally ^^ Greater exemption was granted to higher officials than to lower officials or those who had not been officials. See infra, pp. 37-40. ^" See infra, IV. ^' Hu Hsien-chin, The Common Descetit Group in China and Its Functions, p. 126. '** Idem
8 THE CHINESE GENTRY in the marriage,funeral,and sacrificial ceremonies.In the regulations published by the government on the conduct of these ceremonies,the regula- tions for the gentry differed from those for the commoners.And within the gentry itself,the regulations provided for the upper gentry differed from those provided for the lower gentry group In marriage and funeral ceremonies,three sets of regulations were provided under the headings of p'in-kzan,literally meaning "officials of various ranks," ,literally meaning "the mass of scholars,"and sha-jen,literally meaning "the mass of people"(commoners).The first group included officials of the s eventh rank and above.Officials of the eighth rank and below as well as holders of the examination grade of sbeng-yian and the bought academic title of chien-sbeng were included in the second group. In sacrificial ceremonies,regulations were provided under the same three headings.Here it is stated that the p'in-kwan group included not only officials of all ranks but also the holders of cbin-sbib and cbi-jen degrees who resided at their native places and were regarded as equal to seventh-rank officials. Also included were the holders of the academic title of kang-sheng who were regarded as equal to eighth-rank officials.The sheng-yiian,chien-sheng,and eang-sbeng through purchase were considered as belonging to the second or sbi-sbib group. The distinction between the upper and lower gentry was also indicated by differences in their garments and hats.For instance,the upper gentry had gold buttons on their hats,while members of the lower gentry had silver ones,21 The upper gentry members were naturally more respectfully received by the local magistrates and were in general more privileged and influential than members of the lower gentry.The distinction between upper and lower gentry will be further developed in later sections ENTRANCE INTO ANDOO THE LOWER LAVER The lower gentry were less privileged and powerful than the upper gentry, but they comprised a much larger group.They were represented in many 8 Wu Y 10.114 16-9w Ch'ing Fung- p.8ab. g16b. oup wasn through purchase,ie ng to theh ordertexvibaedmori the en chin-en 13a-6b
8 THE CHINESE GENTRY in the marriage, funeral, and sacrificial ceremonies. In the regulations published by the government on the conduct of these ceremonies, the regulations for the gentry differed from those for the commoners. And within the gentry itself, the regulations provided for the upper gentry differed from those provided for the lower gentry group. In marriage and funeral ceremonies, three sets of regulations were provided under the headings of p'in-kuan, literally meaning "officials of various ranks," shu-shih, literally meaning "the mass of scholars," and shu-jen, literally meaning "the mass of people" (commoners). The first group included officials of the seventh rank and above. Officials of the eighth rank and below as well as holders of the examination grade of sheng-yilan and the bought academic title of chien-sheng were included in the second group.^^ In sacrificial ceremonies, regulations were provided under the same three headings. Here it is stated that the p'in-kuan group included not only officials of all ranks but also the holders of chin-shih and chil-jen degrees who resided at their native places and were regarded as equal to seventh-rank officials. Also included were the holders of the academic title of kung-sheng who were regarded as equal to eighth-rank officials. The sheng-ytian, chien-sheng, and kung-sheng through purchase were considered as belonging to the second or shu-shih group.^° The distinction between the upper and lower gentry was also indicated by differences in their garments and hats. For instance, the upper gentry had gold buttons on their hats, while members of the lower gentry had silver ones."^ The upper gentry members were naturally more respectfully received by the local magistrates and were in general more privileged and influential than members of the lower gentry. The distinction between upper and lower gentry will be further developed in later sections. ENTRANCE INTO AND COMPOSITION OF THE LOWER LAYER OF THE GENTRY The lower gentry were less privileged and powerful than the upper gentry, but they comprised a much larger group. They were represented in many " Wu Yung-kuang, Wu-hsiieh-lu ch'u-pie?!, prefatory remark, p. 8 a-b, also chiian 16-19; ra-Ch'ing fung-li, 26/esp. la, 6 b; 52/esp. 16 a-b, 19 b, 28 b, 29 a, 30 b. -^ Wu Yung-kuang, loc. cit.; also Ta-Ch'ing fung-li, 17/esp. 8 a, 16 b. The original order of members of the second group was kung-sheng through purchase, chien-sheng, and sheng-yiian, an order of legal position. According to their social positions, they would appear in the order of sheng-yiian, kung-sheng through purchase, and chien-sheng. The order adopted in the text above is based on numerical size and importance within the gentry group. '^ Ta-Ch'ing chin-shen ch'uan-shu, 1/3 a 6 b
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 9 Entrance Into and Composition of the Gentry chin-shih mil:tory c☐ chii.jen military mm☐og 购向 sheng-yian chien-sheng military civil 网 2t tung-sheng rank ond file Irregular Route (through purchase) Regulor Route Irregulor Route (through military caieer) FIGURE 1
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION Entrance Into and Composition of the Gentry —5 Official ana i ; Holders of Official Titles S -> Regular Route ^IrKegulnr Route Cthrcugh pui-chase) > Irregular Route (through military caieer) FIGURE 1