10 THE CHINESE GENTRY morecommunities and had a free hand in the places whereno upper genty lived,although there were,of course,some smaller communities where there were no gentry at all. Everywhere,however,the main dividing line was between the commoners and the gentry as a whole.The lower gentry made up by far the larger part of the entire gentry group,and it was also the group from which the upper gentry was derivec Admission to lower gentry status was therefore the decisive step over the main line of demarcation between commoners and gentry and will be taken up first. The main gates of entrance into the lower gentry group were examination and purchase.Of these,examination was the more important way to gentry status.More were admitted in this way than through purchase,and thos admitted by examination had as "regulars"higher prestige than those who had entered"irregularly"by buying their academic titles. The entrance examination that qualified for gentry status was called t'ung-sbib,meaning the examination of junior students who themselves were calledg-beng.Those who passed the became bengn,the educated lower gentry.In colloquial language they were called brit-ts'ai. The t'ang-sbib,the entrance examination,actually consisted of a series of three successive examinations.One who applied for the first of the series was called cbiin-bsis or "man of promise." s Only male commoners were qualified to apply.The underprivileged"mean people"were denied such rights.Regulations provided that slaves,even when freed,would not be per mitted to take part in examinations.Members of the families of prostitute entertainers,and licors were not allowed to participate in the examinations, and the whole boating population was also excluded.2 With these exceptions,the pathway to membership in the gentry was,in theory,open to all upon equal terms In practice,however,the examina- tion system was by no means free from discrimination and favoritism.There inese Infue nce the Wes ern Examinatio 浮w,moB立 otheordauscomplimentary term applied tm (hereafter abbreviated)1. 蒙中 20 Sce The ano sauthor states: hvin morine d fep vereeaded
10 THE CHINESE GENTRY more communities and had a free hand in the places where no upper gentry lived, although there were, of course, some smaller communities where there were no gentry at all. Everywhere, however, the main dividing line was between the commoners and the gentry as a whole. The lower gentry made up by far the larger part of the entire gentry group, and it was also the group from which the upper gentry was derived. Admission to lower gentry status was therefore the decisive step over the main line of demarcation between commoners and gentry and will be taken up first. The main gates of entrance into the lower gentry group were examination and purchase. Of these, examination was the more important way to gentry status. More were admitted in this way than through purchase, and those admitted by examination had as "regulars" higher prestige than those who had entered "irregularly" by buying their academic titles. The entrance examination that qualified for gentry status was called fung-shih, meaning the examination of junior smdents who themselves were called fung-sheng. Those who passed the t'ung-shih became sheng-yilan, the educated lower gentry. In colloquial language they were called hsiu-ts'ai. The fung-shih, the entrance examination, actually consisted of a series of three successive examinations.^" One who applied for the first of the series was called chiln-hsiu or "man of promise." "^ Only male commoners were qualified to apply. The underprivileged "mean people" were denied such rights. Regulations provided that slaves, even when freed, would not be per- mitted to take part in examinations.'* Members of the families of prostitutes, entertainers, and lictors were not allowed to participate in the examinations,'^ and the whole boating population was also excluded.^" With these exceptions, the pathway to membership in the gentry was, in theory, open to all upon equal terms." ^ In practice, however, the examination system was by no means free from discrimination and favoritism. There For bibliography of Western books or articles describing the Chinese examination system, see Henri Cordier, Dictionnaire Bibliographique des Ouvrages Relatifs a I'Empire Chinois, I, 546; also see Teng Ssu-yii, "Chinese Influence on the Western Examination System," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, VII, No. 4, Sept. 1943, Appendix 2, pp.^ 308-312. In other words, chiin-hsiu was just a complimentary term applied to commoners intending to participate in the examinations. ^'* Ch'in-ting ta-Ch'ing hui-tien shih-li (hereafter abbreviated Shih-li), 155/5 a. -^ Ch'ing-shih kao, 114/1 b. -" See "Competitive Examinations in China," Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, October 1885, Vol. 138, p. 482. The anonymous author states: "Before being allowed to enter his name on the list, each candidate must produce a certificate to prove that he is a free-born subjea of the realm, and of a respectable parentage, a limit which arbitrarily excludes not only the whole boating population, but also the children of the police, and all play-actors and slaves." -^ Those who were observing mourning periods for deceased parents were excluded from these examinations
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION were malpractices and corruption;and the fact that the candidates had to secure a guarantee as to their origin and character from gentry members prevented many from participating in the examinations Nor did all have an equal opportunity to devote themselves to the life of study which the ex- amination system demanded The first of the series of three examinations was known as cboa-bsien-shib the district examinations.These examinations were held by the cho or bsier magistrates for candidates from their districts.The successful candidates in the first examination were then known as t'ng-sbeng.They were qualified to take the ft(prefectural)or independent chot examinations held by prefects or independent chor magistrates.Those who passed then participated in the directors-of-studies in the pre fectural or independent choz cities." these three examinations,the last one was decisive for admission to the sbeng-yilan group.In the first two of the examinations,the magistrates or prefec could generally let the candidates ass if they wished to be lenient. However,in the yiian examinations held by the provincial directors- of-studies,only a certain limited number of students could pass.The central government had established a fixed quota for each such examination.As th number of candidates was always much larger than the quota,only a small percentage -generally about ond to two per cent 一passed this last hurdle The decision on admission to the gentry group through examination was therefore in the hands of the provincial directors-of-studies,themselves highly educated men.The magistrates or prefects had only a minor part. The military t'zng-shib also consisted of a series of three examinations Those who passed these examinations were then admitted to gentry status as wa-sbeng-yiian,military sheng-yiian.Commoners,including soldiers,could participate in the military ang-shib Purchase,the other main gate of entrance into the lower gentry was called meaning the purchase of the academic title of by which one nominally became a student of the Imperial College. These directors-of-studies had Cf.Chang C ung-ju sheld by th b;an edict of ordered magistrates to observe no n edict of 1855,Hsien-feng 5/4/5.The Szechwan pro- and chow d b Ho ates that in such rough P assistan adm
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 11 were malpractices and corruption; and the fact that the candidates had to secure a guarantee as to their origin and character from gentry members prevented many from participating in the examinations."^ Nor did all have an equal opportunity to devote themselves to the life of study which the ex- amination system demanded. The first of the series of three examinations was known as chou-hsien-shih, the district examinations. These examinations were held by the choti or hsien magistrates for candidates from their districts. The successful candidates in the first examination were then known as fung-sheng. They were qualified to take the fii (prefectural) or independent chou examinations held by prefects or independent chou magistrates. Those who passed then participated in the yilan examinations "^ held by the provincial directors-of-studies in the prefectural or independent chou cities."'" Of these three examinations, the last one was decisive for admission to the sheng-yiian group. In the first two of the examinations, the magistrates or prefects could generally let the candidates pass if they wished to be lenient.^^ However, in the yuan examinations held by the provincial directorsof-studies, only a certain limited number of students could pass. The central government had established a fixed quota for each such examination. As the number of candidates was always much larger than the quota, only a small percentage—generally about one to two per cent—passed this last hurdle. The decision on admission to the gentry group through examination was therefore in the hands of the provincial directors-of-studies, themselves highly educated men. The magistrates or prefects had only a minor part."" The military fnng-shih also consisted of a series of three examinations. Those who passed these examinations were then admitted to gentry status as 10u-sheng-yiian, military sheng-yiian. Commoners, including soldiers, could participate in the military fung-shih. Purchase, the other main gate of entrance into the lower gentry was called chiian-chien, meaning the purchase of the academic title of chten-sheng by which one nominally became a student of the Imperial College. These -^ See infra. III. -^ The yuan, examination was so called because the provincial directors-of-studies had the official designation of hsueh-yiian. ^ Cf. Chang Chung-ju, Ch'ing-tai k'o-chii chih-tu, pp. 3-7. "^ Tung-kuan hsien-chih, 33/10 b; an edia of 1744 ordered magistrates to observe no quota in examinations held by them. ^- This was pointed out in an edia of 1855, Hsien-feng 5/4/5. The Szechwan provincial direaor-of-studies, Ho Shao-chi, had questioned the handling of examinations by prefects and chou and hsien magistrates who had obtained their positions through purchase. The edict states that in such cases the examination papers were always read by assistants and that furthermore the aaual admission to sheng-yiian status was still in the hands of the provincial direaors-of-studies. See Ch'ing-shih-lu (hereafter abbreviated Shih-lu), Wen-tsung, 164/9 b-12 a
12 THE CHINESE GENTRY chien-sheng through purchase were called li-chien-sheng,meaning chien-sheng (purchased)"in accordance with precedents."The academic title of kng sheng,imperial student,could also be purchased.The purchasers of this title were called li-kang-sbeng,kang-sbeng "in accordance with precedents." exceptional cases,these li-chien-sheng and li-kung-sheng actually went to the capital to study in the Imperial College,but the great majority did not do so. These latter were lower in social position than the educated sbeng-yiian. Commoners could purchase these titles.The "mean peoplewere excluded from the purchase system as well as from the examination system.Those among the mean people"who changed their names and,unnoticed,attended examinations or participated in the purchase system were punished besides being deprived of the grade,title,or office thus obtained. However,these titles were bought not only by commoners but also by sbeng-yiian who were already gentry members.As sheng-yiian they could not step into officialdom Therefore,en who wished to purchase offices first had to buy cbien-sbeng or kang-sheng titles.But as sbeng-yiian they paid less than the commoners for the same title.For instance,according to the regulations of the Board of Revenue,beginning in 1831,who wished to purchase the title of chien-sheng had to pay 108 taels in silver For sheng-yin,the payment varied from 60to90 taels. As has been indicated before,those who wanted to participate in the 'ng-sbib in order to become sheng-yiian had to take their examinations in their native districts and prefectures. In contrast,those who wanted to The umber of students in the Imperial Colles varying from 300 to epumber inc1 aded chie0系fewe名2& hsin-cher /59,the of the privileges enjoyed by the students Chn-ing te 、岛8 former servan enmagistrat cae aetceaomicaofoiehiann Then he m the re riated the eohceofasia8 nvestigation, two mpeached deng o-fa-c chi
12 THE CHINESE GENTRY chien-sheng through purchase were called li-chien-sheng, meaning chien-sheng (purchased) "in accordance with precedents." The academic title of kungsheng, imperial student, could also be purchased. The purchasers of this title were called li-kung-sheng, kung-sbeng "in accordance with precedents." In exceptional cases, these li-chien-sheng and li-kung-sheng actually went to the capital to study in the Imperial College,^ ^ but the great majority did not do so. These latter were lower in social position than the educated sheng-yiian.^^ Commoners could purchase these titles. The "mean people" were excluded from the purchase system as well as from the examination system. Those among the "mean people" who changed their names and, unnoticed, attended examinations or participated in the purchase system were punished besides being deprived of the grade, title, or office thus obtained.'^"' However, these titles were bought not only by commoners but also by sheng-yilan who were already gentry members. As sheng-yiian they could not step into officialdom. Therefore, sheng-yiian who wished to purchase offices first had to buy chien-sheng or kung-sheng titles. But as sheng-yiian they paid less than the commoners for the same title. For instance, according to the regulations of the Board of Revenue, beginning in 1831, chiin-hsiu who wished to purchase the title of chien-sheng had to pay 108 taels in silver. For sheng-yiian, the payment varied from 60 to 90 taels.^^ As has been indicated before, those who wanted to participate in the fung-shih in order to become sheng-yiian had to take their examinations in their native districts and prefectures. In contrast, those who wanted to "•' The number of students in the Imperial College was limited, varying from 300 to 180 in different periods. Moreover, this number included chien-sheng and kung-sheng not gained through purchase and in late Ch'ing included also holders of chii-jen degrees. See Shih-li, 1098/4 b. •'* Thus in Ch'ing-kuo hsin-cheng-fa fen-lun, 3/59, the statement that students of the Imperial Collce were of higher social status refers to those who actually studied there. The v,'hole section on the special privileges enjoyed by the students of the Imperial College also refers to this limited group. ^'' Ch'in-ting hu-pu tse-lj, 134/21 b. For aaual examples of violation and punishment, see for instance Kuo Sung-tao, Kuo-shih-lang tsou-su, 4142 3l-44 a, a memorial dated 1864 reporting on the investigation of T'ang Fu, a former servant of the aaing hsien magistrate P'an Ming-hsien. T'ang misappropriated land tax money of 2,100 taels. This money was given him for delivery to the provincial treasury, but instead he used it to purchase a subprefect position for his son. Then he misappropriated the customs revenue of 2,800 taels for repayment of the land tax money, using the remaining 700 taels to help his son-in-law purchase the office of assistant hsieti magistrate. After investigation, two other sons were found to have also purchased offices in violation of this regulation. Deprivai of their official positions and punishment were requested. •'"' Shan-sheng ko-fu-chou chiian-chien liang-shu fiao-li, p. 1 a; also T'ang Hsiang-lung, "A Statistical Study of the Chiian-chien System in the Tao-kuang Period," She-hni k'o-hsiieh tsa-chih, II, 4, December 1931, p. 438; also Ch'ing-kuo hsin-cheng-fa fen-km, 5/359. In some provinces, such as the northwestern province of Shensi, all were required to pay in grain rather than silver. It was even stated that any magistrate who should collect in money would be impeached. See Shan-sheng ko-fu-chou chiian-chien liang-shu t'i-au-li, ]?. 1 a- b. In some places payment was made in grass, camels, or horses. See Hsii Ta-ling, op. cit., p. 34
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 13 purchase chien-sheng titles could do so either at their native places or at the capitaIn special cases,men ofm localities were permitted to participae in the purchase of cbien-sbeng titles in districts other than their own. Examination and purchase were thus the main gates of entrance to gentr status.In addition to these,a few other ways of admission must be mentioned, although the number of gentry admitted through them was relatively very small.One such way of entrance was to become en-chien-sheng,cbien-sheng by virtue of imperial favor.This group was very small.Some were selected from an-bsieb-sheng,students of the banner schools and imperial clans- men's school These,as bannermen,were not real gentry. But some were selected from the small group of mathematics, who were probably Chinese. The title of en-chien-sbeng was sometimes granted also to descendants of early sages who were originally feng-ssheng,students in charge of sacri fices to the sages.Descendants of sages,even mere cbiin-bsin,who participated in the imperial inspection and lecturing ceremonies held in the Imperial College,were sometimes granted the title of en-cbien-sbeng.This was then a way of entrance to gentry status specially reserved for these descendants. Another way of entrance into the gentry was the yin or inheritance privi through inheritance rendered to,or suffering undergone on behalf of,the state by one of their progenitors.Regulations provided that such titles could be bestowed for on generation only on one son of the civil and military officials in the capital who were fourth rank or above,civil officials in the provinces who were third rank or above,and military officers in the provinces who were second tank or above.This type of yin-sbeng was called en-yin-sbeng or kuan-yin- “InYi-liD prefecrure Sui-eand Yen-an prefecru which a order regions [of Shensi],the of Feng-hsiang who are ple te and -an ar mpnptcaRcnaoeaheg essful candidates of this examination were calledfaSee n were only thirty in number at one time ieaatemicniecbglhabT6
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION 13 purchase chien-sheng titles could do so either at their native places or at the capital.^' In special cases, men of some localities were permitted to participate in the purchase of chien-sheng titles in districts other than their own.^^ Examination and purchase were thus the main gates of entrance to gentry status. In addition to these, a few other ways of admission must be mentioned, although the number of gentry admitted through them was relatively very small. One such way of entrance was to become en-chien-sheng, chien-sheng by virtue of imperial favor. This group was very small. Some were selected from kuan-hsiieh-sheng, students of the banner schools and imperial clans- men's school.^** These, as bannermen, were not real gentry. But some were selected from the small group of suan-hsUeh-sheng, students of mathematics, who were probably Chinese.^ '^ The title of en-chien-sheng was sometimes granted also to descendants of early sages who were originally feng-ssu-sheng, students in charge of sacri- fices to the sages. Descendants of sages, even mere chiln-hsiu, who participated in the imperial inspection and lecturing ceremonies held in the Imperial College, were sometimes granted the title of en-chien-sheng. This was then a way of entrance to gentry status specially reserved for these descendants.*^ Another way of entrance into the gentry was the yin or inheritance privilege. These gentry members were known as yin-sheng, government students through inheritance. They were granted the title in consideration of services rendered to, or suffering undergone on behalf of, the state by one of their progenitors. Regulations provided that such titles could be bestowed for one generation only on one son of the civil and military officials in the capital who were fourth rank or above, civil officials in the provinces who were third rank or above, and military officers in the provinces who were second rank or above.*" This type of yin-sheng was called en-yin-sheng or kuan-yin- ^ Shih-li 1098/1 b. '^^ Shan-sheng ko-fu-chou chiian-chien liang-shu fiao-li, pp. 18b-19a relates: "In Yii-lin prefecture, Sui-te chou, and Yen-an prefecture, which are border regions [of Shensi}, the granaries have been empty. Among the local people, very few are well-to-do and enthusiastic in the purchase of chien-sheng titles. People of Feng-hsiang, Han-chung, T'ung-chou, etc., who are willing to purchase the titles in Yii-lin, Sui-te, and Yen-an are permitted to do so. The other chou and hsien magistrates are permitted to coUea only from local sheng-yiian and chiin-hsiu. Sons of merchants in Shensi whose native places are in other provinces but who are willing to participate in the purchase of the chien-sheng title in Shensi are permitted to do so." ^ In addition, the bannermen could participate in the jan-i fung-shih, the translator examination dealing with translation between the Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese languages. The successful candidates of this examination were called jan-i sheng-yiian. See Shih-li. chiian 365. *** Suan-hsueh-sheng were only thirty in number at one time, studying for a period of five years, after which time they would become either t'ien-wen-sheng (students of astro- nomy) or en-chien-sheng. See Shih-li, chiian 1101-02. *^ Ihid., 1098/1 b. They were descendants of Confucius, Mencius, Yen-tzu, and Tseng-tzu. *- This provision limited the en-yin-sheng to a very small number since these ranks were held only by commissioners and above in the provinces and by colonels and above
14 THE CHINESE GENTRY sheng since the title was granted because of their meritorious official pro- genitors.Regulations also provided that such titles could be bestowed for one who lost their lives at sea or on inland waters while engaged in public service, or who died of illness while holding offices in military camps.This latter type of yin-sbeng was called nan-yin-sheng since the title was granted in con- sideration of the disastrous death of the official progenitors.If yin-sbeng were Imperial College,they were then called y Since the yin privilege bypassed the examination and purchase routes to geny lifed the recipient of gentry group an extensive application of this privilege would be an important factor affect ing social mobility.With this in mind,one might attach too much importance tothe fact that in Taiping times the privilege was bestowed upon a wider range of recipients.In a collection of accounts of "loyal"deaths in Chekiang province in the war between the government and the Taipings,there is a preface maintaining that the yin privilege was even extended to "loyal' deaths of chii-jen,krng-sbeng,and sbeng-yiian.A Szechwan local gazetteer gives actual exa mples of the granting of yin-chien-sheng titles to sons of tw kung-sbeng and thirteen sbeng-yian martyrs. However,the exercise of this favor must have been a matter of imperial discretion,and the number of yin-sheng actually bestowed was quite small In the province of Chekiang,mentioned above,in the district of Yu-yao,only five were known to have become en-yin-sheng during the whole Ch'ing dynasty,and only three were known to have become man-yin-sbeng. 6 Thus, the yin privilege,though it must be mentioned as one way of entrance to gentry starus,was of very minor imporance during the nineteenth century. In discussions of the gentry,the position of the elders or ch'i-lao is often lege in 456 f.In the nineteenth century.however.the The pretace the table of deceased loyal to be humi ela that the ath 11 mited suicid the per o高
14 THE CHINESE GENTRY sheng since the title was granted because of their meritorious official progenitors. Regulations also provided that such titles could be bestowed for one generation on one son of civil or military officials of seventh rank or above who lost their lives at sea or on inland waters while engaged in public service, or who died of illness while holding offices in military camps.*" This latter type of yin-sheng was called nan-yin-sheng since the title was granted in consideration of the disastrous death of the official progenitors. If yin-sheng were sent to the Imperial College, they were then called yin-chien-sheng. Since the yin privilege bypassed the examination and purchase routes to gentry status and lifted the recipient of the title directly into the gentry group, an extensive application of this privilege would be an important factor affect- ing social mobility. With this in mind, one might attach too much importance to the fact that in Taiping times the yin privilege was bestowed upon a wider range of recipients. In a collection of accounts of "loyal" deaths in Chekiang province in the war between the government and the Taipings, there is a preface maintaining that the yin privilege was even extended to "loyal" deaths of chu-je?i, kung-sheng, and sheng-yiian^^ A Szechwan local gazetteer gives actual examples of the granting of yin-chien-sheng titles to sons of two kung-sheng and thirteen sheng-yiian martyrs.*^ However, the exercise of this favor must have been a matter of imperial discretion, and the number of yin-sheng actually bestowed was quite small. In the province of Chekiang, mentioned above, in the district of Yii-yao, only five were known to have become en-yin-sheng during the whole Ch'ing dynasty, and only three were known to have become nan-yin-sheng^"^ Thus, the yin privilege, though it must be mentioned as one way of entrance to gentry status, was of very minor importance during the nineteenth century. In discussions of the gentry, the position of the elders or ch'i-lao is often in the military. In "Public Office in the Liao Dynasty and the Chinese Examination System," Harvard Journal of Astatic Studies, X, No. 1, June 1947, pp. 25 ff., K. A. Wittfogel showed the large proportion of officials who benefited from the yin privilege in Liao and other dynasties. See also K. A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society: Liao (907-1125), pp. 456 ff. In the nineteenth century, however, the proportion seems to have been very small. - Shih-li, 1098/1 b, 4 b. ^* Chekiang chung-i-lu. t'ao 2, ts'e 3, p. 1 a. The preface to the table of deceased loyal gentry says, "Scholars study to know how to be loyal and filial. When the world is in turbulence and one's strength is insufficient to kill the rebels, it is improper to be humiliated. How can one tolerate disgrace and be greedy of living?" It also relates that the Emperor had adopted the suggestions of court officials that chii-jen, kung-sheng, and sheng-yiian, who traditionally were not given death compensation and yin privileges, should be granted the special favor of receiving such privileges, just like officials who died m resisting the rebels or committed suicide in preference to humiliation. "5 Hsii-chou fu-chih (Szechwan), 55121 nS. "* Yii-yao hsien-chih, chiian 23. One of the en-yin-sheng entered the Imperial College and became an official. Three other en-yin-sheng entered officialdom of a low level. One nan-yin-sheng also entered the Imperial College. Two other nan-yin-sheng became first captains