THE CHINESE GENTRY Sudies on Their Role in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Society
THE CHINESE GENTRY Studies on Their Role in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Society
PART ONE An Inquiry into the Constitution And Character of the Gentry Of Nineteenth-Century China DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN GROUPS OF THE GENTRY ACCORDING TO THEIR TITLES AND DEGREES THe posrrIox of sben-sbib or gentry was gained through the acquisition of a title,grade,degree,or official rank which automatically made the holder a member of the shen-sbib group.The titles,grades,and degrees were meant to indicate the holders'educational standing.Official rank was generally con- ferred only upon people who had such proof of their educational standing. The educational grades and degrees were obtained by passing the govern- ment examinations,which was the formal way of proving educational quali- fication.Those who became gentry through examination may therefore be called the "regular"group. Educational titles could,however,be purchased.While those who bought such titles were usually literate and had some education,they were not required to give any proof of educational qualifications.Such members of the gentry may be called the“irregular'”group. A Western writer of the nineteenth century described both groups of the gentry in the following manner:"Shin-sze are people who have obtained some literary degree,which however can be bought with money,as well as obtained by reading books,although all profess to be tub-shoo jin,book-reading men."The high value set on education and the respect accorded to mem- bers of the"regular"gentry were expressed in the words of a high court official:What makes the jen and fusbeng (gentry members through examination)so valuable to the world is the way they raise themselves to their position through poems and books."In their educational standard and 461 3
PART ONE An Inquiry Into the Constitution And Character of the Gentry Of Nineteenth-Century China DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN GROUPS OF THE GENTRY ACCORDING TO THEIR TITLES AND DEGREES The position of shen-shih or gentry was gained through the acquisition of a title, grade, degree, or official rank which automatically made the holder a member of the shen-shih group. The titles, grades, and degrees were meant to indicate the holders' educational standing. Official rank was generally conferred only upon people who had such proof of their educational standing. The educational grades and degrees were obtained by passing the government examinations, which was the formal way of proving educational qualification. Those who became gentry through examination may therefore be called the "regular" group. Educational titles could, however, be purchased. While those who bought such titles were usually literate and had some education, they were not required to give any proof of educational qualifications. Such members of the gentry may be called the "irregular" group. A Western writer of the nineteenth century described both groups of the gentry in the following manner: "Shin-sze are people who have obtained some literary degree, which however can be bought with money, as well as obtained by reading books, although all profess to be tuh-shoo jin, 'book-reading men.' " ^ The high value set on education and the respect accorded to members of the "regular" gentry were expressed in the words of a high court official: "What makes the chu-]en and fu-sheng (gentry members through examination) so valuable to the world is the way they raise themselves to their position through poems and books." ' In their educational standard and ^ The Chinese Repository, I, No. 11, p. 461. ^ Ch'en Ch'ing-yung, Chou-ching-t'ang chi, supplementary chiian A/1 a
THE CHINESE GENTRY social position these gentry members who had achieved their position through examination were superior to those who had purchased their titles.This distinction was stressed by the "regulars"to protect their vested interest in their hard-won positions against the competition of the "irregular"group. There are indications that the central government used this rivalry as one means of controlling the gentry and balanced one group against the other so as to keep them both in hand. Of these two groups,the"regulars"were,then,those who had passed the government examination.The educational grade that qualified for gentry status was the grade of sbeng-yian which was gained by passing a series of examinations.The term sheng-yiian is best rendered as"government student. It described government students of the district and prefectural schools." Sheng literally means students and yian means a definite number.The whole term referred to a definite number of students admitted through examinations to each district or prefectural school.These sbeng-yiian could strive for advancement through participation in higher examinations for the degree of chii-jen,graduate of the provincial examinations,'and the degree of chin-shib,graduate of the metropolitan examinations.Some of the sheng 0-4 ereot ar to moder cc an as provincial exam ying in these andsons of third Literally chi-jen ommended men 一如色子 of c aoiemcpdedeaeainaddanoieetennthenaddeg 云
4 THE CHINESE GENTRY social position these gentry members who had achieved their position through examination were superior to those who had purchased their titles. This distinction was stressed by the "regulars" to protect their vested interest in cheir hard-won positions against the competition of the "irregular" group."' There are indications that the central government used this rivalry as one means of controlling the gentry and balanced one group against the other so as to keep them both in hand.* Of these two groups, the "regulars" were, then, those who had passed the government examination. The educational grade that qualified for gentry status was the grade of sheng-yiian which was gained by passing a series of examinations. The term sheng-yiian is best rendered as "government student." It described goverrunent students of the district and prefectural schools." Sheng literally means students and yiian means a definite number.^ The whole term referred to a definite number of students admitted through examinations to each district or prefectural school. These sheng-yiian could strive for advancement through participation in higher examinations for the degree of chii-jen, graduate of the provincial examinations," and the degree of chin-shih, graduate of the metropolitan examinations.* Some of the sheng- ' Hsii Ta-ling, Ch'ing-tai chuan-na chih-tu, pp. 140-41. ' See mjra, II, on government poliqr regarding sale of offices and titles. ' These schools were not similar to modern educational institutions. The students went only to attend examinations. They remained students for life unless granted higher degrees or titles. For detail see injra. III. The translation of sheng-yiian as "government stu- dents" has not been generally used. Sheng-yiian have been more often referred to as licentiates or bachelors of arts, which this writer considers inappropriate since sheng-yiian were students and not graduates. Hsieh Pao-chao, The Government of China (1644-1911), pp. 145-6 has almost the same opinion. He writes: ". . . an admission in the distria or prefeaural colleges, in fact merely an aa of qualifying for provincial examinations, is frequently misnamed a first degree. . . . The difficulty of qualifying in these colleges gave importance to the students who qualified, and the especial privileges they enjoyed elevated them above the struggling commoners. In spite of these features, a scholarship remained a scholarship, not a degree per se." " Ku Yen-wu, Jih-chih-lu, 17/1 a, states that the word yiian means a definite number. Ku quoted from the Tang-shu that in T'ang there was for the first time the National College which enrolled 72 yiian of sheng from sons, brothers, and grandsons of third-rank officials or above, 140 in the Imperial College from heirs of fifth-rank officials or above, 130 in the colleges of four specialized subjects for heirs of seventh-rank officials or above, three levels of prefectural colleges, varying from 60 to 50 to 40 yiian of sheng, and also three levels of district colleges varying from 40 to 30 to 20 yiian of sheng. This is the origin of the term sheng-yiian. Cf. Tz'u-yiian, s. v. '' Literally chii-jen means "recommended men." According to Tz'u-hai, s. v., and Ku Yen-wu, op. cit., 16/3 b- 4 a, the term first appears in the annal of Chang Ti in Hou-Han-shu, the biography of Hsien-yu Shih-yung in Pei-Ch'i-shu and the annal of Kao Tsung in Chiu-T'ang-shu. It referred to men recommended to the court from various prefeaures for the selection of officials. If they were selected, they were no longer called chii-jen. If they failed, they had to be recommended again and did not retain the address of chii-jen. In the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties, however, it became a degree permanently held by those who succeeded in the provincial examinations. The term chii-jen also appeared in the examination section of the Hsin-T'ang-shu. See translation by Robert des Rotours, Le Traite des Examens, p. 248. * Chin-shih literally means "presented scholars," i.e., scholars presented to receive emolument. It was first established as one type of examination in Sui. In Ming and