150 J.K.FAIRBANK AND S.Y.TENG observed that this list includes those distant places visited by the feets under CHENG Ho some two centuries earlier,with most of which formal relations had ceased as soon as the Chinese expeditions failed to reappear after 1433.It therefore gives a totally incorrect im- pression of the number of countries actively tributary in 1587;it is, rather,a list of all countries with which the Ming dynasty had ever had nominal tributary relations.20 For the reader's guidance it may be totaled as follows,under the categories given in the Statutes: COURT TRIBUTE: Barbarians of the east and south,part one: 18 (Korea through Tan-pa); Barbarians of the east and south,part two: 45 (Sulu through Cananore); Northern barbarians: Small princes toward the north: 8 entries (Mongol princes,et al.) Barbarians of the northeast: 2 entries (Jurchen,et al.) Western barbarians;part one: 4 entries (Hami etc.) 38 countries of the Western Regions 13 other western places. Western barbarians,part two: (Tibet,and aboriginal or border tribes,some 20 entries,not listed in this article.) (Total entries listed below in this article:123.) The Chinese version of these place names and the mechanics of their identification we have confined to an index,part 8 below. In anticipation of our second problem,how often these tributaries were recorded as sending tribute (which may indicate the frequency with the quite similar list given in the Ming History,ch.320-332,a survey of which was published by BRErscHNEIDER in 1876 et seq.(see appendix 1). 2 This fact is indicated by indirection in the opening passages of the Statute: "At the beginning of the Hung-wu period (1368-1398)various envoys were sent with imperial proclamations to go and announce them to the various barbarians, with a view to establishing peace over the four seas (i.e.all the world).Frequently there were accompanying envoys (with the imperial envoys,on their return)who came to Court to present tribute.In 1375 it was imperially ordered that Annam, Korea,and Champa should send tribute to Court every three years,and when a king in those countries succeeded to the throne then the heir-apparent should appear (at Court).During the Yung-lo period (1403-1424)on several occasions there were troubles in the Western Ocean and (the Emperor)sent palace (i.e.eunuch)envoys with 30,000 seamen,taking gold and silks to bestow them as imperial gifts.There were sixteen envoys who accompanied (the Chinese,on their return)to present tribute at Court.” Nothing further is said concerning tribute presented during the century and a half which had preceded the publication of the Wan-li hui-tien
150 J. K. FAIRBANK AND S. Y. TENG observed that this list includes those distant places visited by the fleets under CHENG Ho some two centuries earlier, with most of which formal relations had ceased as soon as the Chinese expeditions failed to reappear after 1433. It therefore gives a totally incorrect impression of the number of countries actively tributary in 1587; it is, rather, a list of all countries with which the Ming dynasty had ever had nominal tributary relations.26 For the reader's guidance it may be totaled as follows, under the categories given in the Statutes: COURT TRIBUTE: 'Barbarians of the east and south, part one: 18 (Korea through Tan-pa); 2Barbarians of the east and south, part two: 45 (Sulu through Cananore); 'Northern barbarians: Small princes toward the north: 3 entries (Mongol princes, et al.) Barbarians of the northeast: 2 entries (Jurchen, et al.) Western barbarians; part one: 4 entries (Hami etc.) 38 countries of the Western Regions 13 other western places. 'Western barbarians, part two: (Tibet, and aboriginal or border tribes, some 20 entries, not listed in this article.) (Total entries listed below in this article: 123.) The Chinese version of these place names and the mechanics of their identification we have confined to an index, part 8 below. In anticipation of our second problem, how often these tributaries were recorded as sending tribute (which may indicate the frequency with the quite similar list given in the Ming History, ch. 320-332, a survey of which was published by BRETSCHNEIDER in 1876 et seq. (see appendix 1). 26 This fact is indicated by indirection in the opening passages of the Statute: " At the beginning of the Hung-wui period (1368-1398) various envoys were sent with imperial proclamations to go and announce them to the various barbarians, with a view to establishing peace over the four seas (i. e. all the world). Frequently there were accompanying envoys (with the imperial envoys, on their return) who came to Court to present tribute. In 1375 it was imperially ordered that Annam, Korea, and Champa should send tribute to Court every three years, and when a king in those countries succeeded to the throne then the heir-apparent should appear (at Court). During the Yung-lo period (1403-1424) on several occasions there were troubles in the Western Ocean and (the Emperor) sent palace (i. e. eunuch) envoys with 30,000 seamen, taking gold and silks to bestow them as imperial gifts. There were sixteen envoys who accompanied (the Chinese, on their return) to present tribute at Court." Nothing further is said concerning tribute presented during the century and a half which had preceded the publication of the Wan-li hui-tien
ON THE CHING TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 151 of trade),we note after each place the dates*mentioned by the compilers of the Statutes in connection with each place as they listed it.These may be presumed to be important milestones at least in the opinion of the compilers.(The first seven states,Korea through Champa,sent tribute with comparative regularity,and the compilers of the Statutes gave certain additional facts which we indicate regard- ing the periodicity and route of their tribute embassies.) TABLE 1.MING TRIBUTARIES AS OF 1587. COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES PERIODICITY ROUTE VIA Korea 1369. 1972,every 3 Yalu R., (Chao-hsien) yrs.or 1 yr.; Liao-yang, after 1403, Shanhaikuan annual Japan 1374 refused,accepted 1381 10 yrs. Ningpo 1403-1551 occasional Liu-ch'iu 1868f. 2 yrs. Foochow Annam 1869f. 8yr8. P'ing-yang chou, Kwangsi Cambodia 1371任. Court tribute Kwangtung (Chen-la) indefinite Siam 1371f. 3 yrs. Kwangtung Champa 1369ff. 3yr8. Kwangtung Java 137,1881,1404,1407 1448 every S (Chao-wa) yrs.,later indefinite COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES Pahang 1378,1414 Chola (Hsi- 1370,1403 Pai-hua 1378 yang so-li) Palembang 1368,1871,1878,1875, Chola (So-li) 1372 (San-fo-ch'i) 1377 Lan-pang 1376 (in periods 1408- Brunei 137,1405,1408,1414, 24,1426-35 joined a (P'o-ni) 1425 neighboring country in Samudra (Hsti- 1388 sending tribute) wen-ta-na) Tan-pa 1377 Samudra (Su- 1405,1407,1431,1435 Sulu 1417,1421 men-ta-la) Ku-ma-la 1420 a7 In the Collected Statutes most events are dated by year only.The lunar Chinese year overlaps the Gregorian by about 84 days,say 10%.It follows that on the average one in ten of the year dates given in the Statutes will represent a time (in the western month of January)which is really in the succeeding year
ON THE CH'ING TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 151 of trade), we note after each place the dates 27 mentioned by the compilers of the Statutes in connection with each place as they listed it. These may be presumed to be important milestones at least in the opinion of the compilers. (The first seven states, Korea through Champa, sent tribute with comparative regularity, and the compilers of the Statutes gave certain additional facts which we indicate regarding the periodicity and route of their tribute embassies.) TABLE 1. MING TRIBUTARIES AS OF 1587. COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES PERIODICITY ROUTE VIA Korea 1369 ff. 1372, every 3 Yalu R., (Chao-hsien) yrs. or 1 yr.; Liao-yang, after 1403, Shanhaikuan annual Japan 1374 refused, accepted 1381 10 yrs. Ningpo 1403-1551 occasional Liu-ch'iu 1368 ff. 2 yrs. Foochow Annam 1369 ff. 3 yrs. P'ing-yang chou, Kwangsi Cambodia 1371 ff. Court tribute Kwangtung (Chen-la) indefinite Siam 1371 ff. 3 yrs. Kwangtung Champa 1369 ff. 3 yrs. Kwangtung Java 1372, 1381, 1404, 1407 1443 every 3 (Chao-wa) yrs., later indefinite COUNTRY TRIBUTEMBASSIES COUNTRY TRIBUTEMBASSIES Pahang 1378, 1414 Chola (Hsi- 1370, 1403 Pai-hua 1378 yang so-li) Palembang 1368, 1371, 1373, 1375, Chola (So-li) 1372 (San-fo-ch'i) 1377 Lan-pang 1376 (in periods 1403- Brunei 1371, 1405, 1408, 1414, 24, 1426-35 joined a (P'o-ni) 1425 neighboring country in Samudra (Hsii- 1383 sending tribute) won-ta-na) Tan-pa 1377 Samudra (Su- 1405, 1407, 1431, 1435 Sulu 1417, 1421 men-ta-la) Ku-ma-la 1420 27 In the Collected Statutes most events are dated by year only. The lunar Chinese year overlaps the Gregorian by about 34 days, say 10%. It follows that on the average one in ten of the year dates given in the Statutes will represent a time (in the western month of January) which is really in the succeeding year
152 J.K.FAIRBANK AND S.Y.TENG COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES Calicut 1405,1407,1409 Maldive Is. Malacca (via Kwangtung）1405, Burma (A-wa) 1411,1412,1414,1424, Lambri 1434,frequently 1445 (Nan-wu-li) f,1459 Kelantan Borneo (?So-lo) 1406 Ch'i-la-ni Aru 1407 with Calicut et al. Hsia-la-pi Quilon 1407 with Samudra et al. (Arabia?) Bengal 1408,1414,1438 K'u-ch'a-ni Ceylon 1411,1412,1445,1459 Wu-she-la-t'ang Jaunpur 1420 Aden Syria (Fu-lin) 1871 Rum,Asia Minor Cochin 1404,1412 Bengal (P'eng- Melinde 1414 chia-na) The Philippines 137e,1405.1576 (via She-la-ch'i (Lii-sung) Fukien) Pa-k'o-i Tieh-li Coyampadi Jih-lo-hsia-chih sent tribute with Java (K'an-pa-i-t'i) Marinduque in1405 Hei-ka-ta (Ho-mao-li) (also Pai-ka-ta Ku-li-pan-tsu 1405 in1432) (Pansur?) La-sa Ta-hui 1405 Barawa,Africa Hormuz 1405 Mogadisho Coyampadi 1414 Lambri (Kan-pa-li) (Nan-p'o-li) Cail Yung-lo period Ch'ien-li-ta (1403-1425) Cananore Djofar (Jurfattan) The list of tributaries in the Wan-li hui-tien then continues with the northern barbarians,chiefly the Wa-la (Oirats),as quoted below.28 as"Court Tribute,part three:Northern barbarians.Of the northern barbarians, the Tatars (ta-ta,Tartars)are the largest.Since the Mongolian Yiian (dynasty) retired into the Gobi,the remaining troublemakers for generations have called (them- selves)Khans (k'o-han,kagan).On the east is Urianghai,on the west Hami,on the north Wa-la.The Wa-la (Oirats)became strong and several times defeated the Tatars.Thereafter Urianghai and Hami both tendered their allegiance.But Urianghai was then divided to form the three (military)districts of To-yen,etc.(i.e.To-yen, Fu-yi,and T'ai--ning).The chief of the Wa-la,Ma-ho-mu馬哈木，was invested as Prince of Shun-ning.The Tatar chief of the Altai offered his allegiance and was invested as Prince of Ho-ning.Both sent envoys to present tribute.There- after they were rebellious and submissive in an uncertain manner.In the Ch'eng-hua period (1465-1487)the small princes also sent tribute.The tribute was without a
1592 J. K. FAIRBANK AND S. Y. TENG COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES COUNTRY TRIBUTE EMBASSIES Calicut 1405, 1407, 1409 Maldive Is. " Malacca (via Kwangtung) 1405, Burma (A-wa) " 1411,1412,1414,,1424, Lambri "C 1434, frequently 1445 (Nan-wu-li) ff., 1459 Kelantan " Borneo (?So-lo) 1406 Ch'i-la-ni " Aru 1407 with Calicut et al. Hsia-la-pi " Quilon 1407 with Samudra et al. (Arabia?) Bengal 1408, 1414, 1438 K'u-ch'a-ni " Ceylon 1411, 1412, 1445, 1459 Wu-she-la-t'ang " Jaunpur 1420 Aden " Syria (Fu-lin) 1371 Rum, Asia Minor " Cochin 1404, 1412 Bengal (P'eng- " Melinde 1414 chia-na) The Philippines 1372, 1405, 1576 (via She-la-ch'i " (Lu-sung) Fukien) Pa-k'o-i " Tieh-li Coyampadi " Jih-lo-hsia-chih sent tribute with Java (K'an-pa-i-t'i) Marinduque F in 1405 Hei-ka-ta " (Ho-mao-li) J (also Pai-ka-ta " Ku-li-pan-tsu 1405 in 1432) (Pansur?) La-sa " Ta-hui 1405 Barawa, Africa " Hormuz 1405 Mogadisho " Coyampadi 1414 Lambri " (Kan-pa-li) (Nan-p'o-li) Cail Yung-lo period Ch'ien-li-ta " (1403-1425) Cananore Djofar " (Jurfattan) The list of tributaries in the Wan-li hui-tien then continues with the northern barbarians, chiefly the Wa-la (Oirats), as quoted below.28 28 " Court Tribute, part three: Northern barbarians. Of the northern barbarians, the Tatars (ta-ta, Tartars) are the largest. Since the Mongolian Yuan (dynasty) retired into the Gobi, the remaining troublemakers for generations have called (themselves) Khans (k'o-han, kagan). On the east is Urianghai, on the west Hami, on the north Wa-la. The Wa-la (Oirats) became strong and several times defeated the Tatars. Thereafter LUrianghai and Hami both tendered their allegiance. But Urianghai was then divided to form the three (military) districts of To-yen, etc. (i. e. To-yen, Fu-yii, and T'ai-ning). The chief of the Wa-la, Ma-ho-mu , 1ft*, was invested as Prince of Shun-ning A The Tatar chief of the Altai offered his allegiance and was invested as Prince of Ho-ning4l$. Both sent envoys to present tribute. Thereafter they were rebellious and submissive in an uncertain manner. In the Ch'eng-hua period (1465-1487) the small princes also sent tribute. The tribute was without a
ON THE CH'ING TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 153 It then continues:"Western barbarians,first section:from Lanchow in Shensi one crosses the (Yellow)River and goes 1500 li to reach Su-chou.From Su-chou west 70 li is the Jade Gate (Chia Yii Kuan). Everything outside the Jade Gate is called the Western Regions.But to the south of Shensi everything beyond the frontier from Szechwan to Yunnan is called the Western Tribes (Hsi-Fan).In the Western Regions are seven districts:Hami,Anting,A-tuan (Khotan?),Ch'ih- chin Mongolia,Ch'i-hsien,Han-tung,and Han-tung the Left,all west of the Gate,,Hami being the farthest west皆在關西而哈密又最 西.·” Hami tribute begun 1404,an- district of nual from 1465,every Han-tung 5 yrs.from 1475 Ch'ih-chin 1404,every 5 yrs.from district of begun 1374 Mongolia 1563 Anting district of 1487 Ch'u-hsien "The tribute sent to the Court by the thirty-eight countries of the western regions all passes through Hami.As to their periods for tribute,it may be sent off perhaps once in 3 or once in 5 years.The (number of)men may not exceed 35." (The 38 countries are as follows: Herat sent an envoy in 85th Ilibalik sent tribute 1391,1406, year of Hung-wu (and Bashibalik)1413,1418(?),1437, (1402),1409,1437 continuous from 1457 Ha-san Nieh-k'o-li Ha-lieh-erh (or Mieh-k'o-li) Sha-ti-man Badakshan Kashgar (Pa-tan-sha) Ha-ti-lan (Khotelan?) Balkh Sairam (Sai-lan) Almalik? Sao-lan (Sairam?) Togmak fixed period.In the Lung-ch'ing period (1567-1572)Anda was invested as Prince of Shun-i.Every year he sends a tribute of horses and has traded (with China)to the present time uninterruptedly.The small princes extending toward the north (are as follows):The three princes of the Wa-la,[tribute begun 1403;annual, with interruptions,from 1458],the Prince of Shun-i [tribute annual from 1570],the districts of To-yen,Fu-yii,and T'ai-ning [1388,tribute twice a year from 1403].The northeastern barbarians are as follows:[Jurchen et al.,tribute irregular because of distancel.On the west of the sea (is)Chien-chou [annual tribute]." BRETscHNEIDER 2.159-17s gives an extensive critical account of the same subject- matter drawn from the Ming History,and a similar account appears in JA ser.9,vol.7 (1896).173-179
ON THE CH'ING TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 153 It then continues: " Western barbarians, first section: from Lanchow in Shensi one crosses the (Yellow) River and goes 1500 li to reach Su-chou. From Su-chou west 70 li is the Jade Gate (Chia Yu Kuan). Everything outside the Jade Gate is called the Western Regions. But to the south of Shensi everything beyond the frontier from Szechwan to Yunnan is called the Western Tribes (Hsi-Fan). In the Western Regions are seven districts: Hami, Anting, A-tuan (Khotan?), Ch'ihchin Mongolia, Ch'ii-hsien, Han-tung, and Han-tung the Left, all west of the Gate, Hami being the farthest west . ,, Hami tribute begun 1404, an- district of nual from 1465, every Han-tung 5 yrs. from 1475 Ch'ih-chin 1404, every 5 yrs. from district of begun 1374 Mongolia 1563 Anting district of 1437 Ch'ii-hsien "The tribute sent to the Court by the thirty-eight countries of the western regions all passes through Hami. As to their periods for tribute, it may be sent off perhaps once in 3 or once in 5 years. The (number of) men may not exceed 35." (The 38 countries are as follows: ) Herat sent an envoy in 35th Ilibalik sent tribute 1391, 1406, year of Hung-wu (and Bashibalik) 1413, 1418 (?), 1437, (1402), 1409, 1437 continuous from 1457 Ha-san Nieh-k'o-li Ha-lieh-erh (or Mieh-k'o-li) Sha-ti-man Badakshan Kashgar (Pa-tan-sha) Ha-ti-lan (Khotelan?) Balkh Sairam (Sai-lan) Almalik? Sao-lan (Sairam?) Togmak fixed period. In the Lung-ch'ing period (1567-15792) Anda 'f4$- was invested as Prince of Shun-i )Hi*. Every year he sends a tribute of horses and has traded (with China) to the present time uninterruptedly. The small princes extending toward the north (are as follows): The three princes of the Wa-la, [tribute begun 1403; annual, with interruptions, from 1458], the Prince of Shun-i [tribute annual from 1570], the districts of To-yen, Fu-yfi, and T'ai-ning [1388, tribute twice a year from 1403]. The northeastern barbarians are as follows: [Jurchen et al., tribute irregular because of distance]. On the west of the sea (is) Chien-chou [annual tribute]." BRETSCHNEIDER 2. 159-173 gives an extensive critical account of the same subjectmatter drawn from the Ming History, and a similar account appears in JA ser. 9, vol. 7 (1896). 173-179
154 J.K.FAIRBANK AND S.Y.TENG Chalish Ya-hsi Kan-shih Yarkand Bukhara? Jung (Western P'a-la barbarians?) Shiraz Pai Nishapur Wu-lun Kashmir Alani Tabriz hotan？(A-tuan) Ku0-sa-ssǚ Yeh-ssu-ch'eng Khodjend?(Huo-t'an) K'un-ch'eng (Kunduz?) Khodjend (Huo-chan) She-hei Kucha (K'u-hsien) Pai-yin Khodjend K'o-chieh (Sha-liu-hai-ya) (The list continues with further countries in the west as follows: Turfan 1430,1497,1509,1510, Medina Hsiian-te period after 1598 once in (1426-1435) 5 yrs. Khotan (Yi-t'ien)1408 includingafter 1430: Jih-lo Yung-lo period Karakhodjo (Huo- (1408-1424) chou); 1409,1430 Badakshan Liu-ch'en city 1480 (Pa-ta-hei-shang) Samarkand 1387,1389,1391,etc; Andkhui after 1528 once in Isfahan 5 yrs. Khorassan 1432 Kingdom of Rum after 1524 once in 5 E-chi-chieh Chia-ching period (Asia Minor) yrs.,via Kansu (1529-1566) Arabia (Tien-fang,Hsuan-te period(1426- Ha-hsin Mecca?) 1436),1617,in Chia-ching period (1522-1566)fxed to be once in 5 yrs. (The list.concludes with Tibet (chuan 108),followed by a score of temples and tribes of the Tibetan border or the southwest.) When compared with the lists recorded in other Ming sources,this one appears to be relatively complete,2 enabling us to make the following tentative analysis: With this list from the Hui-tien of 1587 may be compared that given in the (pre-Ming)Wen-hsien t'ung-kao文默通考ch.324-332,which includes a total of 97 barbarian places or peoples.The Ch'ing supplement to this work (Ch'in-ting hsu wen-hsien t'ung-k'ao),ch.239-250,the compilation of which was ordered in 1747,in a corresponding section lists some 125 places or peoples;this is chiefly for the Ming
154 J. K. FAIRBANK AND S. Y. TtNG Chalish Ya-hsi Kan-shih Yarkand Bukhara? Jung (Western P'a-la barbarians?) Shiraz Pai Nishapur Wu-lun Kashmir Alani Tabriz Khotan? (A-tuan) Kuo-sa-ssfi Yeh-ssfi-ch'eng Khodjend? (Huo-t'an) K'un-ch'eng (Kunduz?) Khodjend (Huo-chan) She-hei Kucha (K'u-hsien) Pai-yin Khodjend K'o-chieh (Sha-liu-hai-ya) (The list continues with further countries in the west as follows:) Turfan 1430, 1497, 1509, 1510, Medina HsUan-te period after 1523 once in (1426-1435) 5 yrs. Khotan (YU-t'ien) 1408 includingafterk1430: Jih-lo Yung-lo period Karakhodjo (Huo- (1403-1424) chou); 1409, 1430 Badakshan Liu-ch'en city 1430 (Pa-ta-hei-shang) " Samarkand 1387, 1389, 1391, etc.; Andkhui " after 1523 once in Isfahan " 5 yrs. Khorassan 1432 Kingdom of Rum after 1524 once in 5 E-chi-chieh Chia-ching period (Asiai Minor) yrs., via Kansu (1522-1566) Arabia (Tien-fang, Hsfian-te period (1426- Ha-hsin " Mecca?) 1435), 1517, in Chia-ching period (1522-1566) fixed to be once in 5 yrs. (The list concludes with Tibet (chijan 108), followed by a score of temples and tribes of the Tibetan border or the southwest.) When compared with the lists recorded in other Ming sources, this one appears to be relatively complete,29 enabling us to make the following tentative analysis: 29 With this list from the Hui-tien of 1587 may be compared that given in the (pre-Ming) Wen-hsien t'ung-k'ao ;XjV ch. 324-332, which includes a total of 97 barbarian places or peoples. The Ch'ing supplement to this work (Ch'in-ting hsii wen-hsien t'ung-k'ao), ch. 239-250, the compilation of which was ordered in 1747, in a corresponding section lists some 125 places or peoples; this is chiefly for the Ming