leaders in Hunan,all of whom say,"They have simply gone Red."But where would the national revolution be without this bit of Red?To talk about "arousing the masses of the people"day in and day out and then to be scared to death when the masses do rise-what difference is there between this and Lord Sheh's love of dragons?[35] NOTES 1 Hunan Province was then the centre of the peasant movement in China. 2 Chao Heng-ti,the ruler of Hunan at the time,was the agent of the Northern warlords.He was overthrown by the Northern Expeditionary Army in 1926. 3 The Revolution of 1911 overthrew the autocratic regime of the Ching Dynasty.On October lo of that year,a section of the Ching Dynasty's New Army staged an uprising in Wuchang,Hupeh Province,at the urging of bourgeois and petty-bourgeois revolutionary societies.It was followed by uprisings in other provinces,and very soon the rule of the Ching Dynasty crumbled.On January 1, 1912,the Provisional Government of the Republic of China was set up in Nanking,and Sun Yat-sen was elected Provisional President.The revolution achieved victory through the alliance of the bourgeoisie with the peasants,workers and urban petty bourgeoisie.But state power fell into the hands of the Northern warlord Yuan Shih-kai,and the revolution failed,because the group which led it was conciliationist in nature,failed to give real benefits to the peasants and yielded to imperialist and feudal pressure. 4 These were the virtues of Confucius,as described by one of his disciples. 5 The old Chinese phrase,"exceeding the proper limits in righting a wrong",was often quoted for the purpose of restricting people's activities,reforms that remained within the framework of the established order were to be permitted,but activities aiming at the complete destruction of the old order were to be forbidden Actions within this framework were regarded as"proper",but those that aimed at completely destroying the old order were described as"exceeding the proper limits".It is a convenient doctrine for reformists and opportunists in the revolutionary ranks.Comrade Mao Tse- tung refuted this kind of reformist doctrine. His remark in the text that"Proper limits have to be exceeded in order to right a wrong,or else the wrong cannot be righted"meant that the mass revolutionary method,and not the revisionist- reformist method,had to be taken to end the old feudal order. 6 Chiang Kai-shek had not yet been fully exposed as a counter-revolutionary in the winter of 1926 and the spring of 1927 when the Northern Expeditionary Army was marching into the Yangtze valley,and the peasant masses still thought that he was for the revolution.The landlords and rich peasants disliked him and spread the rumour that the Northern Expeditionary Army had suffered defeats and that he had been wounded in the leg.Chiang Kai-shek came to be fully revealed as a counter-revolutionary on April 12,1927,when he staged his counter-revolutionary coup d'etat in Shanghai and elsewhere,massacring the workers,suppressing the peasants and attacking the Communist Party.The landlords and rich peasants then changed their attitude and began to support
leaders in Hunan, all of whom say, "They have simply gone Red." But where would the national revolution be without this bit of Red? To talk about "arousing the masses of the people" day in and day out and then to be scared to death when the masses do rise-what difference is there between this and Lord Sheh's love of dragons? [35] NOTES 1 Hunan Province was then the centre of the peasant movement in China. 2 Chao Heng-ti, the ruler of Hunan at the time, was the agent of the Northern warlords. He was overthrown by the Northern Expeditionary Army in 1926. 3 The Revolution of 1911 overthrew the autocratic regime of the Ching Dynasty. On October lo of that year, a section of the Ching Dynasty's New Army staged an uprising in Wuchang, Hupeh Province, at the urging of bourgeois and petty-bourgeois revolutionary societies. It was followed by uprisings in other provinces, and very soon the rule of the Ching Dynasty crumbled. On January 1, 1912, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China was set up in Nanking, and Sun Yat-sen was elected Provisional President. The revolution achieved victory through the alliance of the bourgeoisie with the peasants, workers and urban petty bourgeoisie. But state power fell into the hands of the Northern warlord Yuan Shih-kai, and the revolution failed, because the group which led it was conciliationist in nature, failed to give real benefits to the peasants and yielded to imperialist and feudal pressure. 4 These were the virtues of Confucius, as described by one of his disciples. 5 The old Chinese phrase, "exceeding the proper limits in righting a wrong", was often quoted for the purpose of restricting people's activities, reforms that remained within the framework of the established order were to be permitted, but activities aiming at the complete destruction of the old order were to be forbidden Actions within this framework were regarded as "proper", but those that aimed at completely destroying the old order were described as "exceeding the proper limits". It is a convenient doctrine for reformists and opportunists in the revolutionary ranks. Comrade Mao Tsetung refuted this kind of reformist doctrine. His remark in the text that "Proper limits have to be exceeded in order to right a wrong, or else the wrong cannot be righted" meant that the mass revolutionary method, and not the revisionistreformist method, had to be taken to end the old feudal order. 6 Chiang Kai-shek had not yet been fully exposed as a counter-revolutionary in the winter of 1926 and the spring of 1927 when the Northern Expeditionary Army was marching into the Yangtze valley, and the peasant masses still thought that he was for the revolution. The landlords and rich peasants disliked him and spread the rumour that the Northern Expeditionary Army had suffered defeats and that he had been wounded in the leg. Chiang Kai-shek came to be fully revealed as a counter-revolutionary on April 12, 1927, when he staged his counter-revolutionary coup d'état in Shanghai and elsewhere, massacring the workers, suppressing the peasants and attacking the Communist Party. The landlords and rich peasants then changed their attitude and began to support
him. 7 Kwangtung was the first revolutionary base in the period of the First Revolutionary Civil War (1924-27). 8 Wu Pei-fu was one of the best-known of the Northern warlords.Together with Tsao Kun,who was notorious for his rigging of the presidential election in 1923 by bribing members of parliament, he belonged to the Chihli (Hopei)clique.He supported Tsao as the leader and the two were generally referred to as "Tsao-Wu".In 1920 after defeating Tuan Chi-jui,warlord of the Anhwei clique,Wu Pei-fu gained control of the Northern warlord government in Peking as an agent of the Anglo-American imperialists;it was he who gave the orders for the massacre,on February 7,1923, of the workers on strike along the Peking-Hankow Railway.In 1924 he was defeated in the war with Chang Tso-lin(commonly known as the "war between the Chihli and Fengtien cliques"),and he was thereupon ousted from the Peking regime.In 1926 he joined forces with Chang Tso-lin at the instigation of the Japanese and British imperialists,and thus returned to power.When the Northern Expeditionary Army drove northward from Kwangtung in 1926,he was the first foe to be overthrown. 9 The Three People's Principles were Sun Yat-sen's principles and programme for the bourgeois- democratic revolution in China on the questions of nationalism,democracy and people's livelihood. In 1924,in the Manifesto of the First National Congress of the Kuomintang,Sun Yat-sen restated the Three People's Principles,interpreting nationalism as opposition to imperialism and expressing active support for the movements of the workers and peasants.The old Three People's Principles thus developed into the new,consisting of the Three Great Policies,that is,alliance with Russia, co-operation with the Communist Party,and assistance to the peasants and workers.The new Three People's Principles provided the political basis for co-operation between the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang during the First Revolutionary Civil War period. 10 The Chinese term for "long live"is wansui,literally "ten thousand years",and was the traditional salute to the emperor,it had become a synonym for"emperor". 11 Rich peasants should not have been allowed to join the peasant associations,a point which the peasant masses did not yet understand in 1927. 12 Here the"utterly destitute"means the farm labourers(the rural proletariat)and the rural lumpen- proletariat. 13 The "less destitute"means the rural semi-proletariat 14 Yuan Tsu-ming was a warlord of Kweichow Province who controlled the western part of Hunan. 15 A tenant generally gave his landlord,as a condition of tenancy,a deposit in cash or kind,often amounting to a considerable part of the value of the land.Though this was supposed to be a guarantee for payment of rent,it actually represented a form of extra exploitation
him. 7 Kwangtung was the first revolutionary base in the period of the First Revolutionary Civil War (1924-27). 8 Wu Pei-fu was one of the best-known of the Northern warlords. Together with Tsao Kun, who was notorious for his rigging of the presidential election in 1923 by bribing members of parliament, he belonged to the Chihli (Hopei) clique. He supported Tsao as the leader and the two were generally referred to as "Tsao-Wu". In 1920 after defeating Tuan Chi-jui, warlord of the Anhwei clique, Wu Pei-fu gained control of the Northern warlord government in Peking as an agent of the Anglo-American imperialists; it was he who gave the orders for the massacre, on February 7, 1923, of the workers on strike along the Peking-Hankow Railway. In 1924 he was defeated in the war with Chang Tso-lin (commonly known as the "war between the Chihli and Fengtien cliques"), and he was thereupon ousted from the Peking regime. In 1926 he joined forces with Chang Tso-lin at the instigation of the Japanese and British imperialists, and thus returned to power. When the Northern Expeditionary Army drove northward from Kwangtung in 1926, he was the first foe to be overthrown. 9 The Three People's Principles were Sun Yat-sen's principles and programme for the bourgeoisdemocratic revolution in China on the questions of nationalism, democracy and people's livelihood. In 1924, in the Manifesto of the First National Congress of the Kuomintang, Sun Yat-sen restated the Three People's Principles, interpreting nationalism as opposition to imperialism and expressing active support for the movements of the workers and peasants. The old Three People's Principles thus developed into the new, consisting of the Three Great Policies, that is, alliance with Russia, co-operation with the Communist Party, and assistance to the peasants and workers. The new Three People's Principles provided the political basis for co-operation between the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang during the First Revolutionary Civil War period. 10 The Chinese term for "long live" is wansui, literally "ten thousand years", and was the traditional salute to the emperor; it had become a synonym for "emperor". 11 Rich peasants should not have been allowed to join the peasant associations, a point which the peasant masses did not yet understand in 1927. 12 Here the "utterly destitute" means the farm labourers (the rural proletariat) and the rural lumpenproletariat. 13 The "less destitute" means the rural semi-proletariat. 14 Yuan Tsu-ming was a warlord of Kweichow Province who controlled the western part of Hunan. 15 A tenant generally gave his landlord, as a condition of tenancy, a deposit in cash or kind, often amounting to a considerable part of the value of the land. Though this was supposed to be a guarantee for payment of rent, it actually represented a form of extra exploitation
16 In Hunan,the tu corresponded to the district and the tuan to the township The old administrations of the tu and the tuantype were instruments of landlord rule. 17 The tax per mou was a surcharge on top of the regular lent tax,ruthlessly imposed on the peasants by the landlord regime. 18 Under the regime of the Northern warlords,the military head of a province was called"military governor".But he was the virtual dictator of the province with administrative as well as military power gathered in his hands.In league with the imperialists,he maintained a separatist feudal- militarist regime in his locality. 19 The "standing household militia"was one of the various kinds of armed forces in the countryside.The term "household"is used because some member of almost every household had to join it.After the defeat of the revolution in 1927 the landlords in many places seized control of the militia ant turned them into armed counter-revolutionary bands. 20 At the time,many of the county headquarters of the Kuomintang.under the leadership of the Kuomintang's Central Executive Committee in Wuhan.pursued Dr.Sun Yat-sen's Three Great Policies of alliance with Russia,co-operation with the Communist Party and assistance to the peasants and workers.They constituted the revolutionary alliance of the Communists,the left- wingers of the Kuomintang and other revolutionaries. 21 Lord Pao(Pao Cheng)was prefect of Kaifeng,capital of the Northern Sung Dynasty (A.D.960- 1127).He was famous in popular legend as an upright official and a fearless,impartial judge with a knack of passing true verdicts in all the cases he tried. 22 This reference to archery is taken from Mencius.It describes how the expert teacher of archery draws his bow with a histrionic gesture but does not release the arrow.The point is that while Communists should guide the peasants in attaining a full measure of political consciousness,they should leave it to the peasants'own initiative to abolish superstitious and other bad practices,and should not give them orders or do it for them 23 The Eight Characters were a method of fortune-telling in China based on the examination of the two cyclic characters each for the year,month,day and hour of a person's birth respectively. 24 Geomancy refers to the superstition that the location of one's ancestors'graves influences one's fortune.The geomancers claim to be able to tell whether a particular site and its surroundings are auspicious. 25 Lord Kuan(Kuan Yu,A.D.160-219),a warrior in the epoch of the Three Kingdoms,was widely worshipped by the Chinese as the God of Loyalty and War. 26 Tang Sheng-chih was a general who sided with the revolution in the Northern Expedition.Yeh Kai-hsin was a general on the side of the Northern warlords who fought against the revolution
16 In Hunan, the tu corresponded to the district and the tuan to the township The old administrations of the tu and the tuantype were instruments of landlord rule. 17 The tax per mou was a surcharge on top of the regular lent tax, ruthlessly imposed on the peasants by the landlord regime. 18 Under the regime of the Northern warlords, the military head of a province was called "military governor". But he was the virtual dictator of the province with administrative as well as military power gathered in his hands. In league with the imperialists, he maintained a separatist feudalmilitarist regime in his locality. 19 The "standing household militia" was one of the various kinds of armed forces in the countryside. The term "household" is used because some member of almost every household had to join it. After the defeat of the revolution in 1927 the landlords in many places seized control of the militia ant turned them into armed counter-revolutionary bands. 20 At the time, many of the county headquarters of the Kuomintang. under the leadership of the Kuomintang's Central Executive Committee in Wuhan. pursued Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Three Great Policies of alliance with Russia, co-operation with the Communist Party and assistance to the peasants and workers. They constituted the revolutionary alliance of the Communists, the leftwingers of the Kuomintang and other revolutionaries. 21 Lord Pao (Pao Cheng) was prefect of Kaifeng, capital of the Northern Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960- 1127). He was famous in popular legend as an upright official and a fearless, impartial judge with a knack of passing true verdicts in all the cases he tried. 22 This reference to archery is taken from Mencius.It describes how the expert teacher of archery draws his bow with a histrionic gesture but does not release the arrow. The point is that while Communists should guide the peasants in attaining a full measure of political consciousness, they should leave it to the peasants' own initiative to abolish superstitious and other bad practices, and should not give them orders or do it for them. 23 The Eight Characters were a method of fortune-telling in China based on the examination of the two cyclic characters each for the year, month, day and hour of a person's birth respectively. 24 Geomancy refers to the superstition that the location of one's ancestors' graves influences one's fortune. The geomancers claim to be able to tell whether a particular site and its surroundings are auspicious. 25 Lord Kuan (Kuan Yu, A.D. 160-219), a warrior in the epoch of the Three Kingdoms, was widely worshipped by the Chinese as the God of Loyalty and War. 26 Tang Sheng-chih was a general who sided with the revolution in the Northern Expedition. Yeh Kai-hsin was a general on the side of the Northern warlords who fought against the revolution
27 Sun Chuan-fang was a warlord whose rule extended over the five provinces of Kiangsu, Chekiang,Fukien,Kiangsi and Anhwei.He was responsible for the bloody suppression of the insurrections of the Shanghai workers.His main army was crushed in the winter of 1926 by the Northern Expeditionary Army in Nanchang and Kiukiang,Kiangsi Province. 28 In China a dish is served in a bowl or a plate for the whole table,and not individually. 29 "Oriental Culture"was a reactionary doctrine which rejected modern scientific civilization and favoured the preservation of the backward mode of agricultural production and the feudal culture of the Orient. 30 For the secret societies,see "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society",Note 18,p.21 of this volume. 31 "Mountain","lodge","shrine"and "river"were names used by primitive secret societies to denote some of their sects. 32 When Nanchang was captured by the Northern Expeditionary Army in November 1926,Chiang Kai-shek seized the opportunity to establish his general headquarters there.He gathered around himself the right-wing members of the Kuomintang and a number of Northern warlord politicians and,in collusion with the imperialists,hatched his counter-revolutionary plot against Wuhan,the then revolutionary centre.Eventually,on April 12,1927,he staged his counter-revolutionary coup d'etat which was marked by tremendous massacres in Shanghai. 33 Chang Ching-chiang,a right-wing Kuomintang leader,was a member of Chiang Kai-shek's brain trust. 34 Liu Yueh-chih was head of the"Left Society",an important anti-Communist group in Hunan. 35 As told by Liu Hsiang(77-6 B.C.)in his Hsin Hsu,Lord Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them.But when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit,he was frightened out of his wits.Here Comrade Mao Tse-tung uses this metaphor to show that though Chiang Kai-shek and his like talked about revolution,they were afraid of revolution and against it. The middle bourgeoisie.This class represents the capitalist relations of production in China in town and country.The middle bourgeoisie,by which is meant chiefly the national bourgeoisie,[3]is inconsistent in its attitude towards the Chinese revolution:they feel the need for revolution and favour the revolutionary movement against imperialism and the warlords when they are smarting under the blows of foreign capital and the oppression of the warlords,but they become suspicious of the revolution when they sense that,with the militant participation of the proletariat at home and the active support of the international proletariat abroad,the revolution is threatening the hope of their class to attain the status of a big bourgeoisie.Politically,they stand for the establishment of a
27 Sun Chuan-fang was a warlord whose rule extended over the five provinces of Kiangsu, Chekiang, Fukien, Kiangsi and Anhwei. He was responsible for the bloody suppression of the insurrections of the Shanghai workers. His main army was crushed in the winter of 1926 by the Northern Expeditionary Army in Nanchang and Kiukiang, Kiangsi Province. 28 In China a dish is served in a bowl or a plate for the whole table, and not individually. 29 "Oriental Culture" was a reactionary doctrine which rejected modern scientific civilization and favoured the preservation of the backward mode of agricultural production and the feudal culture of the Orient. 30 For the secret societies, see "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society", Note 18, p. 21 of this volume. 31 "Mountain", "lodge", "shrine" and "river" were names used by primitive secret societies to denote some of their sects. 32 When Nanchang was captured by the Northern Expeditionary Army in November 1926, Chiang Kai-shek seized the opportunity to establish his general headquarters there. He gathered around himself the right-wing members of the Kuomintang and a number of Northern warlord politicians and, in collusion with the imperialists, hatched his counter-revolutionary plot against Wuhan, the then revolutionary centre. Eventually, on April 12, 1927, he staged his counter-revolutionary coup d'état which was marked by tremendous massacres in Shanghai. 33 Chang Ching-chiang, a right-wing Kuomintang leader, was a member of Chiang Kai-shek's brain trust. 34 Liu Yueh-chih was head of the "Left Society", an important anti-Communist group in Hunan. 35 As told by Liu Hsiang (77-6 B.C.) in his Hsin Hsu,Lord Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them. But when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits. Here Comrade Mao Tse-tung uses this metaphor to show that though Chiang Kai-shek and his like talked about revolution, they were afraid of revolution and against it. The middle bourgeoisie.This class represents the capitalist relations of production in China in town and country. The middle bourgeoisie, by which is meant chiefly the national bourgeoisie, [3] is inconsistent in its attitude towards the Chinese revolution: they feel the need for revolution and favour the revolutionary movement against imperialism and the warlords when they are smarting under the blows of foreign capital and the oppression of the warlords, but they become suspicious of the revolution when they sense that, with the militant participation of the proletariat at home and the active support of the international proletariat abroad, the revolution is threatening the hope of their class to attain the status of a big bourgeoisie. Politically, they stand for the establishment of a
state under the rule of a single class,the national bourgeoisie.A self-styled true disciple of Tai Chi- tao [4]wrote in the Chen Pao,[5]Peking,"Raise your left fist to knock down the imperialists and your right to knock down the Communists."These words depict the dilemma and anxiety of this class.It is against interpreting the Kuomintang's Principle of the People's Livelihood according to the theory of class struggle,and it opposes the Kuomintang's alliance with Russia and the admission of Communists [6]and left-wingers.But its attempt to establish a state under the rule of the national bourgeoisie is quite impracticable,because the present world situation is such that the two major forces,revolution and counter-revolution,are locked in final struggle.Each has hoisted a huge banner:one is the red banner of revolution held aloft by the Third International as the rallying point for all the oppressed classes of the world,the other is the white banner of counterrevolution held aloft by the League of Nations as the rallying point for all the counter-revolutionaries of the world.The intermediate classes are bound to disintegrate quickly,some sections turning left to join the revolution,others turning right to join the counter-revolution;there is no room for them to remain "independent".Therefore the idea cherished by China's middle bourgeoisie of an "independent"revolution in which it would play the primary role is a mere illusion. The petty bourgeoisie.Included in this category are the owner-peasants,[7]the master handicraftsmen,the lower levels of the intellectuals-students,primary and secondary school teachers,lower government functionaries,office clerks,small lawyers-and the small traders.Both because of its size and class character,this class deserves very close attention.The owner-peasants and the master handicraftsmen are both engaged in small-scale production.Although all strata of this class have the same petty-bourgeois economic status,they fall into three different sections.The first section consists of those who have some surplus money or grain,that is,those who,by manual or mental labour,earn more each year than they consume for their own support.Such people very much want to get rich and are devout worshipers of Marshal Chao;[8]while they have no illusions about amassing great fortunes,they invariably desire to climb up into the middle bourgeoisie.Their mouths water copiously when they see the respect in which those small moneybags are held.People of this sort are timid,afraid of government officials,and also a little afraid of the revolution.Since they are quite close to the middle bourgeoisie in economic status,they have a lot of faith in its propaganda and are suspicious of the revolution.This section is a minority among the petty bourgeoisie and constitutes its right-wing.The second section consists of those who in the main are economically self-supporting.They are quite different from the people in the first section;they also want to get rich,but Marshal Chao never lets them.In recent years,moreover,suffering from the oppression and exploitation of the imperialists,the warlords,the feudal landlords and the big comprador-bourgeoisie,they have become aware that the world is no longer what it was.They feel they cannot earn enough to live on by just putting in as much work as before.To make both ends meet they have to work longer hours,get up earlier,leave off later,and be doubly careful at their work.They become rather abusive,denouncing the foreigners as "foreign devils",the warlords as "robber generals"and the local tyrants and evil gentry as"the heartless rich".As for the movement against the imperialists and the warlords,they;merely doubt whether it can succeed(on the ground that the foreigners and the warlords seem so powerful),hesitate to join it and prefer to be neutral, but they never oppose the revolution.This section is very numerous,making up about one-half of the petty bourgeoisie. The third section consists of those whose standard of living is falling.Many in this section,who
state under the rule of a single class, the national bourgeoisie. A self-styled true disciple of Tai Chitao [4] wrote in the Chen Pao,[5] Peking, "Raise your left fist to knock down the imperialists and your right to knock down the Communists." These words depict the dilemma and anxiety of this class. It is against interpreting the Kuomintang's Principle of the People's Livelihood according to the theory of class struggle, and it opposes the Kuomintang's alliance with Russia and the admission of Communists [6] and left-wingers. But its attempt to establish a state under the rule of the national bourgeoisie is quite impracticable, because the present world situation is such that the two major forces, revolution and counter-revolution, are locked in final struggle. Each has hoisted a huge banner: one is the red banner of revolution held aloft by the Third International as the rallying point for all the oppressed classes of the world, the other is the white banner of counterrevolution held aloft by the League of Nations as the rallying point for all the counter-revolutionaries of the world. The intermediate classes are bound to disintegrate quickly, some sections turning left to join the revolution, others turning right to join the counter-revolution; there is no room for them to remain "independent". Therefore the idea cherished by China's middle bourgeoisie of an "independent" revolution in which it would play the primary role is a mere illusion. The petty bourgeoisie.Included in this category are the owner-peasants, [7] the master handicraftsmen, the lower levels of the intellectuals-students, primary and secondary school teachers, lower government functionaries, office clerks, small lawyers-and the small traders. Both because of its size and class character, this class deserves very close attention. The owner-peasants and the master handicraftsmen are both engaged in small-scale production. Although all strata of this class have the same petty-bourgeois economic status, they fall into three different sections. The first section consists of those who have some surplus money or grain, that is, those who, by manual or mental labour, earn more each year than they consume for their own support. Such people very much want to get rich and are devout worshipers of Marshal Chao; [8] while they have no illusions about amassing great fortunes, they invariably desire to climb up into the middle bourgeoisie. Their mouths water copiously when they see the respect in which those small moneybags are held. People of this sort are timid, afraid of government officials, and also a little afraid of the revolution. Since they are quite close to the middle bourgeoisie in economic status, they have a lot of faith in its propaganda and are suspicious of the revolution. This section is a minority among the petty bourgeoisie and constitutes its right-wing. The second section consists of those who in the main are economically self-supporting. They are quite different from the people in the first section; they also want to get rich, but Marshal Chao never lets them. In recent years, moreover, suffering from the oppression and exploitation of the imperialists, the warlords, the feudal landlords and the big comprador-bourgeoisie, they have become aware that the world is no longer what it was. They feel they cannot earn enough to live on by just putting in as much work as before. To make both ends meet they have to work longer hours, get up earlier, leave off later, and be doubly careful at their work. They become rather abusive, denouncing the foreigners as "foreign devils", the warlords as "robber generals" and the local tyrants and evil gentry as "the heartless rich". As for the movement against the imperialists and the warlords, they; merely doubt whether it can succeed (on the ground that the foreigners and the warlords seem so powerful), hesitate to join it and prefer to be neutral, but they never oppose the revolution. This section is very numerous, making up about one-half of the petty bourgeoisie. The third section consists of those whose standard of living is falling. Many in this section, who