INTRODUCTION the recognition, however late, of procedures common to the best poetry of the two cultures. sions of the Tragic F Our aim, then, is to center upon key words and word pat terns of the play so that we may see more precisely and fully what the Antigone is and is about. This is not to seek, or permit, a sharp distinction between the poetry and the drama of that work. The structure is both poetic and dramatic the two aspects are inseparable and mutually complemen tary. Language expresses character, helps to create action, and brings into the whole elements of meaning extending beyond the particular situation of the plot. The plot and char- acters in turn not only condition the use of language but are vehicles for its symbolic clues. In a sense, the plot of agents in action is the basic image. All the other images and image patterns are related to it and function with it to form total meaning. To apprehend the total meaning we must therefore see the various developments of the verbal imagery in their functional bearings upon the large image which is the dramatic plot formed"according to the rules of probability and necessity In its original form, Attic tragedy is one of the most com- plex forms of art known. Music, song, and the dance were integral elements of the medium. Even with these elements almost totally lost to us, as they are, the greek tragedies we ossess offer a highly organized richness in their means of communication. Unlike the modern opera to which it is often compared, Greek tragedy did not subordinate plot and char- acter--or, if you will, drama-to music and the dance. This is clear from the extant tragedies. In general, the plot or conflict of agents in action is, as Aristotle observed, the central structural feature. And in every extant greek tragedy the language, or element of diction, is a highly and skillfully developed element. To some extent perhaps this is a happy accident. A large open-air theater, heavy costuming, and masks imposed limitations on physical action and facial ex- pression which by modern standards must seem severe. But 7 This content downloaded from 128... 148 on Thu, 23 Mar 201709: 44: 03 UTC Allusesubjecttohttpaboutjstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION the recognition, however late, of procedures common to the best poetry of the two cultures. Dimensions of the Tragic Form Our aim, then, is to center upon key words and word patterns of the play so that we may see more precisely and fully what the Antigone is and is about. This is not to seek, or permit, a sharp distinction between the poetry and the drama of that work. The structure is both poetic and dramatic; the two aspects are inseparable and mutually complementary. Language expresses character, helps to create action, and brings into the whole elements of meaning extending beyond the particular situation of the plot. The plot and characters in turn not only condition the use of language but are vehicles for its symbolic values. In a sense, the plot of agents in action is the basic image. All the other images and image patterns are related to it and function with it to form the total meaning. To apprehend the total meaning we must therefore see the various developments of the verbal imagery in their functional bearings upon the large image which is the dramatic plot formed "according to the rules of probability and necessity." In its original form, Attic tragedy is one of the most complex forms of art known. Music, song, and the dance were integral elements of the medium. Even with these elements almost totally lost to us, as they are, the Greek tragedies we possess offer a highly organized richness in their means of communication. Unlike the modern opera to which it is often compared, Greek tragedy did not subordinate plot and character—or, if you will, drama—to music and the dance. This is clear from the extant tragedies. In general, the plot or conflict of agents in action is, as Aristotle observed, the central structural feature. And in every extant Greek tragedy the language, or element of diction, is a highly and skillfully developed element. To some extent perhaps this is a happy accident. A large open-air theater, heavy costuming, and masks imposed limitations on physical action and facial expression which by modern standards must seem severe. But This content downloaded from 128.122.230.148 on Thu, 23 Mar 2017 09:44:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION all these factors also meant that the words of the speakers had to bear a heavy share of the load. Thus we find in Greek tragedy, as in Elizabethan poetic drama, a thorough exploitation of the subtle and positive resources of poetic language. "Imagery of all kinds, ambivalences of meaning and suggestion, words made uniqu quely potent and momentous by the circumstances of context, figures of speech, in particu- dians to create and to enrich their desired effects. 7 age- lar metaphors"-all these are used by the three Attic trage The total structure of the tragedy has therefore two signi ant dimensions: a horizontal( time ) dimension and a vertical ( meaning, value)dimension. The horizontal dimension the progressing movement of the tragedy, especially of the story or plot, from a beginning to a middle to an end. The vertical dimension is what the tragedy as a whole means. This too, starts with the plot-the sequence of actions as symbol- izing something or representing certain universals-but it includes also the choral and poetic components, which con tribute to the total content kinds of perception and modes of meaning that are to some extent over and above the specific actions of the characters Aristotle's definition of greek tragedy in the Poetics ex- presses concisely the basic horizontal structure of our play, ts nature as drama. Tragedy, " he says, is an imitation of an action that is serious, having magnitude and complete in itself... in the form of action not of narrative, with inci- dents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish a catharsis [purgation] of such emotions. 8 By implication in its term imitation the Aristotelian definition recognizes that the action of a tragedy is symbolic of universal human traits and problems. By general implication from the rest of the Poetics, Aristotle is . I components of a tragedy must be closely related to the prime dramatic factor of plot or action-the action of ch aracters ng to th pre ty. But other than this, the Aristotelian analysis, as we have it does not include muc of what i have termed the vertical structure of greek tragedy. This content downloaded from 128... 148 on Thu, 23 Mar 201709: 44: 03 UTC Allusesubjecttohttpaboutjstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION all these factors also meant that the words of the speakers had to bear a heavy share of the load. Thus we find in Greek tragedy, as in Elizabethan poetic drama, a thorough exploitation of the subtle and positive resources of poetic language. "Imagery of all kinds, ambivalences of meaning and suggestion, words made uniquely potent and momentous by the circumstances of context, figures of speech, in particular metaphors"—all these are used by the three Attic tragedians to create and to enrich their desired effects.7 The total structure of the tragedy has therefore two significant dimensions: a horizontal (time) dimension and a vertical (meaning, value) dimension. The horizontal dimension is the progressing movement of the tragedy, especially of the story or plot, from a beginning to a middle to an end. The vertical dimension is what the tragedy as a whole means. This, too, starts with the plot—the sequence of actions as symbolizing something or representing certain universals—but it includes also the choral and poetic components, which contribute to the total content kinds of perception and modes of meaning that are to some extent over and above the specific actions of the characters. Aristotle's definition of Greek tragedy in the Poetics expresses concisely the basic horizontal structure of our play, its nature as drama. "Tragedy," he says, "is an imitation of an action that is serious, having magnitude and complete in itself . . . in the form of action, not of narrative, with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish a catharsis [purgation] of such emotions."8 By implication in its term imitation the Aristotelian definition recognizes that the action of a tragedy is symbolic of universal human traits and problems.® By general implication from the rest of the Poetics, Aristotle is, I believe, rightly demanding that all the components of a tragedy must be closely related to the prime dramatic factor of plot or action—the action of characters developed with intensity and consistency according to the laws of probability and necessity. But other than this, the Aristotelian analysis, as we have it, does not include much of what I have termed the vertical structure of Greek tragedy. This content downloaded from 128.122.230.148 on Thu, 23 Mar 2017 09:44:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
NTRODUCTION For example, it recognizes but hastens past the fact that a tragedy may have a fuller significance than its ability to arouse and drain out our raw emotions. Except for one preg nant remark on metaphor, which is not developed, Aristotle relegates diction to a monosemantic ornamental role. And Aristotle does not consider how the various elements of the form, besides the plot, are organized into the rich complexes of meaning to be found in such plays as the Oresteia, the Oedipus tragedies, and the Medea, to cite a few of many ex- am From our point of view, both the range(vertical)and the ompelling artistic unity(both vertical and horizontal) of a tragedy like the Antigone depend upon the skill with which the various poetic and lyric means of communication are employed to complement, illumine, and extend the meanings of the dra- matic actions. Much of the essence of greek tragedy way in which it sets human problems in some kind of perspective, involving more than the surface of life. Much of its quality and its power lies in the multiple means em ployed to explore, develop, and focus such problems in depth The Fact of recurrence Recurrence of imagery is a fact of the Antigone which we have already stated to be one of the keys to the total structure, and it is a fact with which we shall be concerned for most of the rest of this essay. It is of significance for us in several ways and on several levels At a rather elementary level it serves as an indication that an unobtrusive image or one which might otherwise be re- garded as"dead""is in fact alive within a pattern of meanings created by the poet about it. Consider, for example, the mili tary terms in the opening speech of the play And now what is this new thing which they say that the general(strategon) has just had heralded to the city nd all its people Do you know Have you heard? Or do you fail to see that the evils of your enemies are marching(steichonta) on your friends?(7-Io) This content downloaded from 128... 148 on Thu, 23 Mar 201709: 44: 03 UTC Allusesubjecttohttpaboutjstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION For example, it recognizes but hastens past the fact that a tragedy may have a fuller significance than its ability to arouse and drain out our raw emotions. Except for one pregnant remark on metaphor, which is not developed,10 Aristotle relegates diction to a monosemantic ornamental role. And Aristotle does not consider how the various elements of the form, besides the plot, are organized into the rich complexes of meaning to be found in such plays as the Oresteia, the Oedipus tragedies, and the Medea, to cite a few of many examples. From our point of view, both the range (vertical) and the compelling artistic unity (both vertical and horizontal) of a tragedy like the Antigone depend upon the skill with which the various poetic and lyric means of communication are employed to complement, illumine, and extend the meanings of the dramatic actions. Much of the essence of Greek tragedy is the way in which it sets human problems in some kind of final perspective, involving more than the surface of life. Much of its quality and its power lies in the multiple means employed to explore, develop, and focus such problems in depth. The Fact of Recurrence Recurrence of imagery is a fact of the Antigone which we have already stated to be one of the keys to the total structure, and it is a fact with which we shall be concerned for most of the rest of this essay. It is of significance for us in several ways and on several levels. At a rather elementary level it serves as an indication that an unobtrusive image or one which might otherwise be regarded as "dead" is in fact alive within a pattern of meanings created by the poet about it. Consider, for example, the military terms in the opening speech of the play: And now what is this new thing which they say that the general (strategon) has just had heralded to the city and all its people: Do you know ? Have you heard ? Or do you fail to see that the evils of your enemies are marching (steichonta) on your friends? (7-1 o)11 This content downloaded from 128.122.230.148 on Thu, 23 Mar 2017 09:44:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION When Antigone refers to Creon here as the strategos(a gen- eral term for the leader of the state in many tragedies, a military general, a chief executive in the Athenian state) th term may seem only general and of not much particular sig nificance at first. At the same time, the implication of military rigor to be felt in the term is given support by the military implication of the other word, steichonta, which follows losely behind. This later term often means only to proceed, but it is connected closely with marching and military columns Together these two images in the overtones of Antigone's first reference to Creon have connection vitality in their bearing upon, Creon's second and crucial statement of political principle (639-80), which, as we shall see more fully, rests upon a military conception and includes obedience"to small orders and just orders and orders of the opposite kind"(667). And here, as Antigone's initial, latent characterization of Creon's manner of rule foresees well in dvance of the vision of the other characters the limited character of that rule and expresses it in just the terms which Creon later brings into the open, the recurrences of militar imagery take us to a further level of meaning and a more internal kind of awareness--that of Antigone's intuitive knowledge and its validity, despite the general discredit which it suffers for over half of the play. Another example is worth noticing, for it involves an al most hoary metaphor being called to life and being so de- veloped as to take us into the clash of points of view on one of the central issues of the play. This is the sequence built on hyperbainein(to overstep, transgress)in application to law and religious principles. 2 The first appearance is 449 Creon asks Antigone, D She replies affirmatively and in her famous speech of defense presents the righteousness of her conduct as against his view that he, a mortal, could override(hyperdramein) the unwrit- ten and imperishable laws of the gods(454-5)13 Creon re- turns to his original expression in 48I, and the momentary This content downloaded from 128... 148 on Thu, 23 Mar 201709: 44: 03 UTC Allusesubjecttohttpaboutjstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION When Antigone refers to Creon here as the strategos (a general term for the leader of the state in many tragedies, a military general, a chief executive in the Athenian state) the term may seem only general and of not much particular significance at first. At the same time, the implication of military rigor to be felt in the term is given support by the military implication of the other word, steichonta, which follows closely behind. This later term-often means only to proceed, but it is connected closely with marching and military columns. Together these two images in the overtones of Antigone's first reference to Creon have connection to, and show their vitality in their bearing upon, Creon's second and crucial statement of political principle (639-80), which, as we shall see more fully, rests upon a military conception and includes obedience "to small orders and just orders and orders- of the opposite kind" (667). And here, as Antigone's initial, latent characterization of Creon's manner of rule foresees, well in advance of the vision of the other characters, the limited character of that rule and expresses it in just the terms which Creon later brings into the open, the recurrences of military imagery take us to a further level of meaning and a more internal kind of awareness—that of Antigone's intuitive knowledge and its validity, despite the general discredit which it suffers for over half of the play. Another example is worth noticing, for it involves an almost hoary metaphor being called to life and being so developed as to take us into the clash of points of view on one of the central issues of the play. This is the sequence built on hyperbainein (to overstep, transgress) in application to law and religious principles.12 The first appearance is 449. Creon asks Antigone, Did you then dare to overstep these laws ? She replies affirmatively and in her famous speech of defense presents the righteousness of her conduct as against his view that he, a mortal, could override (hyperdramein) the unwritten and imperishable laws of the gods (454-5).13 Creon returns to his original expression in 481, and the momentary IO This content downloaded from 128.122.230.148 on Thu, 23 Mar 2017 09:44:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION balance and clash of these images subsides for the time being But following this scene, the Chorus recalls Creon's origina term to generalize upon Zeus' s invincible power and law of retribution against human transgression(604-14). As a re- sult of the previous exchange with this image in relation to human and divine law, suggestive overtones are aroused when the Chorus continues and applies this general theme with a further pedal image For far-ranging expectation is to many men a comfort but to many the deceit which follows light desire. Disil- lusionment comes to him who knows not until he burn his foot in the hot fire. (615-19)14 Then in the next scene the Haimon scene Creon returns again, with condemnation, to transgressors of the law(663) and near the end of the scene a related image is used against him by his son: CR. Shameless one, bringing charges against your father HA. No! for I see you miss what is just CR. Am I wrong when I respect the rights that are HA. This is not respect, to trample (paton) the honors and offices of the gods. (742-5) However slightly Creon seems convinced here by his son's clear echo of Antigone's argument, from this point on he stops talking about"law"and stands instead more openly for power. Only once, after the catastrophe has come down on his head, does he again mention law and then it is in full humilit (III3-14). And in the very end it is Creon who has both trampled on his own chances of happiness and who, for his late recognition of his error, has been trampled by the final moral forces of the play So Creon himself puts the matter in the last scene of the play Now surely some god struck down on my head,con- straining me with a great weight. He drove me into wild ways, overturning my joy so that it is trampled down (lakpateton)O my woe!(1272-5) This content downloaded from 128... 148 on Thu, 23 Mar 201709: 44: 03 UTC Allusesubjecttohttpaboutjstor.org/terms
INTRODUCTION balance and clash of these images subsides for the time being. But following this scene, the Chorus recalls Creon's original term to generalize upon Zeus's invincible power and law of retribution against human transgression (604-14). As a result of the previous exchange with this image in relation to human and divine law, suggestive overtones are aroused when the Chorus continues and applies this general theme with a further pedal image: For far-ranging expectation is to many men a comfort but to many the deceit which follows light desire. Disillusionment comes to him who knows not until he burn his foot in the hot fire. (615-19)14 Then in the next scene, the Haimon scene, Creon returns again, with condemnation, to transgressors of the law (663), and near the end of the scene a related image is used against him by his son: CR. Shameless one, bringing charges against your father. HA. No! for I see you miss what is just. CR. Am I wrong when I respect the rights that are mine? HA. This is not respect, to trample (patδη) the honors and offices of the gods. ( 742-5 ) However slightly Creon seems convinced here by his son's clear echo of Antigone's argument, from this point on he stops talking about "law" and stands instead more openly for power. Only once, after the catastrophe has come down on his head, does he again mention law and then it is in full humility (1113-14). And in the very end it is Creon who has both trampled on his own chances of happiness and who, for his late recognition of his error, has been trampled by the final moral forces of the play. So Creon himself puts the matter in the last scene of the play: Now surely some god struck down on my head, constraining me with a great weight. He drove me into wild ways, overturning my joy so that it is trampled down (Iakpateton). O my woe! (1272-5)15 This content downloaded from 128.122.230.148 on Thu, 23 Mar 2017 09:44:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms