16 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 17 reasons,firstly,because of the heavy exactions demanded by the rapacious the ship Amphitrite to Canton and Ningpo.Encouraged by the success Manchu military officials in charge of the port,who bettered even their of this voyage Jourdan made an agreement with the company that he teachers in the arts of extortion;secondly,because the silk goods,then should have the monoply of the China trade,but the terms exacted by the chief staple of the Amoy export trade,were finally to be had only the company were so oppressive that the results of the second voyage of on prohibitive terms;and thirdly,because in 1685 all the ports of China the Amphitrite 1701-1703 were a failure.These two voyages led to had been thrown open to foreign trade by Imperial decree,and the Jourdan's company being registered as the Compagnie Royale de la Company-having now the right-eagerly desired to establish a factory Chine;but as it lost money and got into debt,the King in 1712-on the at Canton.That factory,however,was not actually established till 1715 expiry of its charter-issued a new patent to another company of the and in the meantime trade was continued sporadically with Amoy till same name,to run for fifteen years,and granting the monoply of the 1704 and with Chusan (for Ningpo)till 1710.By the time-1757-the China trade not simply for Canton and Ningpo but for all the ports of Emperor Ch'ien Lung decreed that all foreign trade was to be carried China.Between the date of its formation in 1713 and May 1719 the on at Canton alone,the English were firmly established at Canton and company sent several ships to China,which brought in only a moderate had acquired the leadership in the China trade.The English diplomatic return,owing largely to the strict policy of protection inaugurated by embassies to the Manchu Court at Peking to establish more favourable Colbert,under which the importation of textiles,including nankeens, trading conditions will be touched upon later. silks,and velvets from China,were practically banned.Both the Compagnie pour le Commerce des Indes Orientales and the Compagnie The first serious attempt of the French to reach the Far East was Royale de la Chine were suppressed by edict in May 1719,and their that made by the brothers Jean and Raoul Parmentier,who set out from place taken by a new Compagnie des Indes.French trade with China Dieppe in March 1529 in two small vessels with the intention of trading developed slowly,but within ten years of the founding of the new at Sumatra,the Moluccas,and,if possible,China.They reached the company,it had so far grown that the French established a factory at west.coast of Sumatra,where both the leaders perished of fever.Half Canton. a century later (1584)Duplessis-Mornay,the faithful adviser of Henry of Navarre,proposed an ambitious plan to wrest from Portugal her The first American ship to reach China was,appropriately enough monopoly of the trade with the Far East,and to this end to occupy Suez. The Empress of China,which-having obtained the necessary sea-letter Nothing came of the proposal.At the turn of the Century,in November from Congress-left New York in February 1784,and sailed direct to 1600 to be exact,the merchants of Vitre and of Laval formed a company Canton via the Cape of Good hope with a cargo of forty tons of ginseng: to trade with the Moluccas and Japan,and two vessels were equipped her supercargo was Samuel Shaw,who became,in 1786,the first American From the and sent out;the one was wrecked at the Maladive islands,and the other consul,honorary,at Canton,a post which he held till 1794. reached Sumatra where the captain fell ill and died.Following the coming of The Empress of China American trade took root and example of the English and the Dutch,Henri IV agreed to permit the flourished,its rapid progress being due partly to the fact that it was formation of La Compagnie francaise des Indes,and in June 1604 granted carried on by private enterprise and free from the trammels of mono- it a charter conferring on it the monopoly for fifteen years of the trade polistic companies under Government licence;partly to the happy with the East Indies.In spite of the King's urgency,the company did absence of those acts of aggression and-in Chinese eyes-of insubordina- tion which had in the past,and at times still,marked the conduct of nothing,and in 1609 a rival organisation was formed,which equipped a fleet manned largely by Dutchmen.The Government of the United other foreigners,an unusual phenomenon which,naturally,predisposed Provinces objected vigorously to this,and threatened to board the the Chinese to favour American trade;partly to the neutrality of the French vessels and to hang every Dutchman they found on board. United States during the Napoleonic wars-a neutrality which enabled Inspired by Frangois Pallu,Apostolic Vicar of Tonkin and of the the Americans to cut into the highly profitable carrying trade,especially province of south and west China a group of French ecclesiastics and in tea,between China and Europe,and not infrequently to return with of French noblemen and merchants formed in 1660 the first Compagnie cargoes of English goods;partly-to what was in Chinese eyes the de Chine for the propagation of the Faith and the development of trade happiest feature of American trade-the steady and large import of in the empire of China,the kingdoms of Tonkin and of Cochin-China, Spanish dollars,which enabled them to carry on their business on a cash and the adjacent islands.The capital subscribed,however,was not basis;and partly to the inborn trading shrewdness of the American sufficient,and the death of Cardinal Mazarin,in March 1661,who was merchant,a shrewdness shown not only in his methods of carrying one of the shareholders and a patron of the enterprise sounded the through a deal but also in his skill in cutting down overhead expenses death knell of the company.In 1664 Louis XIV,at the instigation of without loss of efficiency.The principal ports from which American ships Colbert,issued an edict establishing a new Compagnie pour la traded with Canton were Boston,Philadelphia,and New York,with Commerce des Indes Orientales,the subscription to the capital of which Salem,Providence,and Baltimore running a close second. was to be thrown open to all Frenchmen.As this company remained After founding several successive East Indian companies,all of which inactive,so far as China was concerned,Jean Jourdan,a wealthy proved failures,the Danes,with the aid of a Dutch adviser,J.van Aspern, Marseilles merchant,obtained from it special permission in 1688 to send established in 1728 an East India company to trade not only to the
16 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS reasons, firstly, because of the heavy exactions demanded by the rapacious Manchu military officials in charge of the port, who b,ettered even their teachers in the arts of extortion; secondly, because the silk goods, then the chief staple of the Amoy export trade, were finally to be had only on prohibitive terms; and thirdly, because in 1685 all the ports of China had been thrown open to foreign trade by Imperial decree, and the Company-having now the right--eagerly desired to establish a factory at Canton. That factory, however, was not actually established till 1715 and in the meantime trade was continued sporadically with Amoy till 1704 and with Chusan (for Ningpo) till 1710. By the time-1757-the Emperor Ch'ien Lung decreed that all foreign trade was to be carried on at Canton alone, the English were firmly established at Canton and had acquired the leadership in the China trade. The English diplomatic embassies to the Manchu Court at Peking to establish more favourable trading conditions will be touched upon later. The first serious attempt of the French to reach the Far East was tha,t made by the brothers Jean and Raoul Parmentier, who set out from Dieppe in March 1529 in two small vessels with the intention of trading at Sumatra, the Moluccas, and, if possible, China. They reached the west coast of Sumatra, where both the leaders perished of fe,:,er. Half a century later (1584) Duplessis-Mornay, the faithful adviser of Henry of Navarre, proposed an ambitious plan to wrest from Portugal her monopoly of the trade with the Far East, and to this end to occupy Suez. Nothmg came of the proposal. At the turn of the Century, in November 1600 to be ~xact, the merchants of Vitre and of Laval formed a company to trade wIth the Moluccas and Japan, and two vessels were equipped and sent out; the one was wrecked at the Maladive islands, and the other reached Sumatra where' the captain fell ill and died. Following the example of the English and the Dutch, Henri IV agreed to permit the formation of La Compagnie fraw;;aise des Indes, and in June 1604 granted it a charter conferring on it the monopoly for fifteen years of the trade with the East Indies. In spite of the King's urgency, the company did nothing, and in 1609 a rival organisation was formed, which equipped a fleet m;mned largely by Dutchmen. The Government of the United Provinces objected vigorously to this, and threatened to board the French vessels and to hang every Dutchman they found on board. Inspired by Fran<sois Pallu, Apostolic Vicar of Tonkin and of the province of south and west China a group of French ecclesiastics and of French noblemen and merchants formed in 1660 the first Compagnie de Chine for the propagation of the Faith and the development of trade in the empire of China, the kingdoms of Tonkin and of Cochin-China, and the adjacent islands. The capital subscribed, however, was not sufficient, and the death of Cardinal Mazarin, in March 1661, who was' one of the shareholders and a patron of the enterprise sounded the death knell of the company. In 1664 Louis XIV, at the instigation of Colbert, issued an edict establishing a new Compagnie pour la Commerce des Indes Orient ales, the subscription to the capital of which was to be thrown open to all Frenchmen. As this company remained inactive, so far as China was concerned, Jean Jourdan, a wealthy Marseilles merchant, obtained from it special permission in 1688 to send HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 17 the ship Amphitrite to Canton and Ningpo. Encouraged by the succes~ of this voyage Jourdan made an agreement with the company that he should have the monoply of the China trade, but the terms exacted by the company were so oppressive that the results of the second voyage o'f the Amphitrite 1701-1703 were a failure. These two voyages led to Jourdan's company being registered as the Compagnie Royale de la Chine; but as it lost money and got into debt, the King in 1712-on the expiry of its charter-issued a new patent to another company of the same name, to run for fifteen years, and granting the monoply of the China trade not simply for Canton and Ningpo but for all the ports of China. Between the date of its formation in 1712 and May 1719 the company sent several ships to China, which brought in only a moderate return, owing largely to the strict policy of protection inaugurated by Colbert, under which the importation of textiles, including nankeens, silks, and velvets from China, were practically banned. Both the Compagnie pour le Commerce des Indes Orientales and the Compagnie Royale de la Chine were suppressed by edict in May 1719, and their place taken by a new Compagnie des Indes. French trade with China developed slowly, but within ten years of the founding of the nell' company, it had so far grown that the French established a factory at 'Canton. The first American ship to reach China was, appropriately enough The Empress at China, which-having obtained the J?ecessary sea-letter from Congress-left New York in February 1784, and sailed direct to Canton via the Cape of Good hope with a cargo of forty tons of ginseng: her supercargo was Samuel Shaw, who became, in 1786, the first American consul, honorary, at Canton, a post which he held till 1794. From the coming of The Emp1'ess at China American trade took root and flourished, its rapid progress being due partly to the fact that it was carried on by private enterprise and free from the trammels of monopolistic companies under Government licence; partly to the happy absence of those acts of aggression and-in Chinese eyes-of insubordination which had in the past, and at times still, marked the conduct of other foreigners, an unusual phenomenon which, 'naturally, predisposed the Chinese to favour American trade; partly to the neutrality of the United States during the Napoleonic wars-a neutrality which enabled ~he Americans to c~t into the highly profitable carrying trade, especially m tea, between Chma and Europe, and not infrequently to return with cargoes of English goods; partly-to what was in Chinese eyes the happiest feature of American trade-the steady and large import of Spanish dollars, which enabled them to carry on their business on a cash basis; and partly to the inborn trading shrewdness of the American merchant, a shrewdness shown not only in his methods of carrying through a deal but also in his skill in cutting down overhead expenses without loss of efficiency. The principal ports from which American ships traded with Canton were Boston, Philadelphia, ;md New York, with Salem, Providence, and Baltimore running a close second. After founding several successive East Indian companies, all of which proved failures, the Danes, with the aid of a Dutch adviser, J. van Aspern, established in 1728 an East India company to trade not only to the
18 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS Danish factories at Tranquebar and Serampore in India,but also with enjoyed the privilege of trade by the land frontier,the Peking Govern. Canton,to which latter port Danish ships from 1733 onwards-sometimes ment interdicted further commercial intercourse by sea. as many as four a year-traded irregularly with varying success.Like the By 1757,when the Emperor Ch'ien Lung issued his decree restricting Danes,the Swedes,too,made several unsuccessful attempts to found East foreign trade to Canton alone,that trade,in self-protection,had already India companies,while the wars of Charles XII played havoc with the gravitated to that port,because-in contrast to Amoy and Chusan-it overseas trade which the Swedes had built up prior to 1718.It was not was still possible to drive a bargain there,because,too,Canton,at that till June 1731 that the Stockholm merchant Konig and his associates time,was the largest,most populous,and richest trading centre in the obtained a royal charter for the creation of a company to trade to China whole Empire,also because of its convenience of access being the nearest and the East,with headquarters at Gothenburg.In the year of its port of arrival for vessels from the west,and because of this convenience foundation a ship was despatched to Canton,and within the fifteen years of access it had of all of China's trading centres the largest experience of of its licence the company sent no fewer than twenty-two ships to China, intercourse with foreigners,an experience which helped to make trading which were so successful in this trading that they yielded an annual conditions,at least possible.To the Peking palace officials the enforce- average return of over fifty-four per cent to the shareholders. Their ment of the decree promised the special advantages of keeping these principal export from China was tea,and this was paid for in Spanish troublesome foreign traders at the furthest point from Peking-thus dollars purchased at Cadiz by the supercargoes on their outward trip. diminishing the possibility of these foreigners getting the ear of the The charter was renewed from time to time,but lapsed definitely in 1814. Emperor-and of making secure for themselves the largest possible There was marked cordiality between the Swedish and the French financial return through the Superintendent of Canton trade,the Hoppo, factories at Canton,and often during the latter half of the eighteenth who held his appointment direct from Peking,and not from a Viceroy and the early years of the nineteenth centuries,when France and Great or Governor. Britain were at daggers drawn,the French factory was dependent for its supply of silver on the goodwill of the Swedish ships. It was,in fact,this personal interest of highly placed officials which helped to keep foreign trade alive.These men were not enlightened Of the other European powers two at least established East India economists and statesmen,concerned for the commercial welfare of their companies under charter.The first was Austria with its historically country.They could not be blamed if they were not.They were,for the famous Compagnie d'Ostende,which was incorporated in 1722 by the most part,place hunters and palace politicans,experts in the intrigues Emperor Charles VI,who had visions of a powerful Imperial navy. of a corrupt court,and constantly needing ready cash for the successful Within four years the Company sent out no fewer than sixteen ships conduct of such intrigues.True to the traditions of their upbringing to Bengal and China,and its success alarmed both the Dutch and the they regarded the trader as an inferior member of society,but useful in English.Its career,however,was short-lived,for in order to secure the that from him,who in their opinion preyed upon commerce,they could support of Holland and England in guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction in turn extort the funds they needed.They would not engage in trade the Emperor agreed in 1731 to suspend the operations of the Company. themselves;that would be an unbelievable degradation of their official His daughter Maria Theresa,on the advice of an Englishman,who had dignity,but they would,and did,secure their share of the spoil,those quarrelled with the East India Company founded in 1775 the Imperial at Peking and the highest placed at Canton by judicious pressure on the Trieste Company for Asiatic Trade,which in less than ten years,through Hoppo,and those on the spot of less degree by similar methods with the bad management,went bankrupt to the tune of ten million forins. Hoppo's agents and underlings.To these official harpies the advent of Prussia,too,fell a victim to the East India craze,but fortune failed to foreign shipping and trade was nothing but a heaven-sent opportunity smile on the Great Elector's enterprise,conducted on his behalf by the for the exaction,for their personal profit,of special levies over and above French discoverer J.B.Tavernier.Sixty years later-in 1750 to be exact those authorized by the.Imperial tariff.At times their rapacity outran -Frederick the Great granted to Henry Thomas Stuart a licence per- their discretion,and when that happened their victims brought into play mitting him and his associates to establish a Prussian Asiatic Company, their most powerful weapon of defence-stoppage of trade.That weapon, with headquarters at Emden and the monopoly of trade between Prussia however,was not an exclusive possession:it could be,and was,made use and the East Indies for twenty years.So far as the royal participation of by both contestants. went,it was confined to granting to the concessionaires the right,for a To make the most of this foreign trade opportunity certain enter- consideration,to make use of the Prussian flag.With characteristic prising Chinese,at the beginning of the eighteenth century secured- caution the king permitted the Dutch and the English to subscribe all the capital.Six vessels were despatched at various times to China,but against value given-from the Peking authorities appointments at Amov, Chusan,and Canton as Imperial brokers through whom,and through for the shareholders the results were a bitter disappointment.The out. whom alone,all foreign imports were to be sold-after they had run break of the Seven Years'War put an end to the enterprise. the gauntlet of the Hoppo and his satellites-and through whom all Other foreign flags to be seen from time to time at Canton in the Chinese goods for export were to be purchased.At Amoy and Chusan factory days were those of Hamburg,Bremen,Genoa,Tuscany,Peru, these monopolistic portents appeared as the"Emperor's Son's Merchants," Chili,and on one occasion,in 1806,that of Russia.As this country the name probably indicating the source of their patents.At Canton,in
18 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS Danish factories at Tranquebar and Serampore in India, but also with Canton, to which latter port Danish ships from 1733 onwards-sometimes as many as four a year-c-traded irregularly with varying success. Like the Danes, the Swedes, too, made several unsuccessful attempts to found East India companies, while the wars of Charles XII played havoc with the overseas trade which the Swedes had built up prior to 1718. It was not till June 1731 that the Stockholm merchant Konig and his associ~tes obtained a royal charter for the creation of a company to trade to Ch1~a and the East, with headquarters at Gothenburg. In the year of Its foundation a ship was despatched to Canton, and within the. fifteen y~ars of its licence the company sent no fewer than. twenty-two ShIpS to Chma, which were so successful in this trading that they. yielded an annual average return of over fifty-four per cent to the shareholders. Their principal export from China was tea, and this was pai~ for in Spani.sh dollars purchased at Cadiz by the supercargoes on theIr outward trIp. The charter was renewed from time to time, but lapsed definitely in 1814. There ,vas marked cordiality between the Swedish and the French factories at Canton, and often during the latter half of the eighteenth and dle early years of the nineteenth centuries, when France and Gre.at Britain were at daggers drawn, the French factory was dependent for Its supply of silver on the goodwill of the Swedish ships. Of the other European powers two at least established East India companies under charter. The first was Austria with. its historically famous Compagnie d'Ostende, which was incorporated m I72.~ by the Emperor Charles VI, who had visions of a powerful Impenal na;r. Within four years the Company sent out no fewer dlan SIxteen ShIpS to Ben<Tal and China, and its success alarmed both the Dutch and the English. Its career, however, was short-lived, .for in order to .secure ~e support of Holland and England in guaranteemg the PragmatIC SanctIOn the Emperor agreed in 1731 to suspend the operations .of the Company. His daughter Maria Theresa, on the advice of an ~nghshman, who h~d quarrelled with the East India Company founded m 1775 the Impenal Trieste Company for Asiatic Trade, which in less than ten years, through bad management, went bankrupt to the tune of ten million ~orins. Prussia, too, fell a victim to the East India craze, but fortune faIled to smile on the Great Elector's enterprise, conducted on his behalf by the French discoverer J. B. Tavernier. Sixty years later-in 1750 ~o be exact -Frederick the Great granted to Henry Thomas Stuart a lIcence permitting him and his associates to establish a Prussian Asiatic Company, with headquarters at Emden and the monopoly of trade betweer: ~ru~sla and the East Indies for twenty years. So far as the royal partiCIpatIOn went, it was confined to granting to the concessionaires the right, fora consideration, to make use of the Prussian flag. "With characteristic caution the king permitted the Dutch and the English to subscribe all the capital. Six vessels were despatched, at various times to China, but for the shareholders the results were a bitter disappointment. The outbreak of the Seven Years' War put an end to the enterprise. Other foreign flags to be seen from time to time at Canton in the factory days were those of Hamburg, Bremen, Genoa, Tuscany, Peru, Chili, and on one occasion, in 1806, that of Russia. As this country HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOlVIS 19 enjoyed the privilege of trade by the land frontier, the Peking Government interdicted further commercial intercourse by sea. By 1757, when the Emperor Ch'ien Lung issued his decree restricting foreign trade to Canton alone, that trade, in self-protection, had already gra.vitated to that port, because-in contrast to Amoy and Chusan-it was still possible to drive a bargain there, because, too, Canton, at that time, was the largest, most populous, and richest trading centre in the whole Empire, also because of its convenience of access being the nearest port of arrival for vessels from the west, and because of this convenience of access it had of all of China's trading centres the largest experience of intercourse with foreigners, an experience which helped to make trading conditions, at least possible. To the Peking palace officials the enforcement of the decree promised the special advantages of keeping these troublesome foreign traders at the furthest point from Peking-thus diminishing the possibility of these foreigners getting the ear of the Emperor-and of making secure for themselves the largest possible financial return through the Superintendent of Canton trade, the Hoppo, who held his appointment direct from Peking, and not from a Viceroy or Governor. It was, in fact, this personal interest of highly placed officials which helped to keep foreign trade alive. These men were not enlightened econonIists and statesmen, concerned for the commercial welfare of their country. They could not be blamed if they ·were not. They were, for the most part, place hunters C).nd palace politicans, experts in the intrigues of a corrupt court, and constantly needing ready cash for the successful conduct of such intrigues. True to the traditions of their upbringing they regarded the trader as an inferior member of society, but useful in that from him, who in their opinion preyed upon commerce, they could in turn extort the funds they needed. They would not engage in trade themselves; that ·would be an unbelievable degradation of their official dignity, but dley would, and did, secure their share of the spoil, those at Peking and the highest placed at Canton by judicious pressure on the Hoppo, and those on the spot of less degree by similar methods with the Hoppo's agents and underlings. To these official harpies the advent of foreign shipping and trade was nothing but a heaven-sent opportunity for the exaction, for their personal profit, of special levies over and above those authorized by the.Imperial tariff. At times their rapacity outran their discretion, and when that happened their victims brought into play their most powerful weapon of defence-stoppage of trade. That weapon, however, was not an exclusive possession: it could be, and was, made use of by both contestants. ' To make the most of this foreign trade opportunity certain enterprising Chinese, at the beginning of the eighteenth century secure clagainst value given-from the Peking authorities appointments at Amoy, Chusan, and Canton as Imperial brokers through whom, and through . ·whom alone, all foreign imports were to be sold-after they had run the gauntlet of the Hoppo and his satellites-and through whom all Chinese goods for export were to be purchased. At Amoy and Chusan these monopolistic portents appeared as the "Emperor's Son's Merchants," the name probably indicating the source of their patents. At Canton, in
20 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 21 1702,he appears under the style of the "Emperor's Merchant,"perhaps were to be free to all,subject,however,in the case of chinaware,to a regarding himself as the successor of the "King's Merchant,"who in 1699 thirty per cent fee to be paid to the guild.Prices were to be fixed by the -in the teeth of opposition from the Viceroy's Merchant,the Tartar guild in conference with the foreign traders,and departure from the General's Merchant,the Governor's Merchant,and from even the Hoppo fixed prices was to be punishable.The supercargoes of a foreign ship himself-almost succeeded in engrossing the trading transactions of the might be permitted to select one of the guild merchants to deal with,but Macclesfield,the first ship to be sent to Canton by the new "English" such merchant would be allowed only one half of the ship's trade,while East India Company.These Emperor's Merchants were not genuine the other half was to be divided among the guild members.As soon as traders,they carried no stocks of goods,and it does not appear that they a contract for a ship's cargo had been made the supercargoes were to be had sufficient capital for the purchase of such,or that they had expert obliged to pay down cash beforehand.Members of the guild were to be knowledge of the goods handled;they were speculative brokers pure and divided into three classes;in the first and second classes were to be five simple,whose aim was to make a good commission from the monopoly firms each,and in the third six firms:new members could be admitted to of.all buying and selling transactions connected with a ship's imports the third alone on payment of an entrance fee of Tls.1,000. and exports.Their pretensions and activities were strongly resented by the substantial merchants who had supplies of goods for disposal,but This guild was the forerunner of the famous Co-hong of Canton who were excluded from trading except on conditions of sharing the merchants;but it was not allowed to have its way without opposition. profit with the monopolist on terms to be laid down by him.The Hoppo Its origin points clearly to official.instigation,as it was the officials who and the higher provincial officers were equally dissatisfied,as a broker stood to gain most by the use of such an organization.In 1731,the first with an imperial licence was a formidable competitor for perquisites season in which the guild expected to begin operations,it met with such which by accepted practice should be theirs and theirs alone;while the stout resistance from the supercargoes of the Company's ships that the foreign merchants found themselves facing what might easily prove the Viceroy,on being appealed to,intervened,but only to gain his own ends, most ruinous form of monopoly,namely,that held by a single person, namely,forestalling of probable reprimands from Peking on the stoppage ignorant and insensible,whose only aim was to extract the utmost of subsidies from Canton's lucrative foreign trade.The official could possible from foreign trade and shipping,even if the process meant the always get at the merchant,guild or no guild,but if its seeming with- ruin of his victims. drawal for a time "soothed"the foreign traders,their delusion was beneficial to all.For forty years the officials permitted the guild to be Before 1705,however,these monopolistic monstrosities had dis- held in abeyance,leaving to the supercargoes of each vessel the privilege appeared.Their exactions had put an end for the time being to foreign of selecting the merchant,or merchants,through whom they wished to trading at Chusan and Amoy,but business at Canton continued.Here trade,but taking care that such merchants should be made amenable to for the next seventeen years trade between foreign and Chinese the spirit of the guild regulations.Occasionally the merchants resisted, merchants was on a free basis,in that merchants were at complete liberty but as a rule they submitted.As the Company's Canton council wrote to choose with whom they would trade.But trafficking with the foreigner on a later occasion-"they are so fearful of their Mandarines that they was becoming a rich and ever richer prize.In 1716 there were no fewer will even suffer the greatest of Evils,rather than run the Risque of than twenty foreign ships at Whampoa(Canton's anchorage)and Macao, Obtaining the Displeasure of these great Men,who keep them under and the thought of that steadily growing stream of silver flowing into inconceivable Subjection."During those forty years the toils round the private coffers of the Hoppo-who,apart from his rake-off from the foreign trade were drawn steadily tighter.Imposition and restriction actual duties,was now enjoying not only the heavy ship's measurement followed each other relentlessly.There was the Governor,who was also fees,running usually to over a thousand taels for a ship,2 but also a levy Hoppo,terrifying ogre of an official,who attempted to establish a of six per cent on all trade deals-aroused the envy of his official monopoly control of the English trade through a merchant of his own colleagues.With spoils like this at his disposal the Hoppo could easily selection;there was the still more terrifying Viceroy,who was also Hoppo, out-distance all rivals in Court and Imperial favour.To secure a share who threatened to bamboo the Chinese merchants if they failed to carry of the plunder the disgruntled talked of joining forces,while the lead- out his commands,and who claimed,and secured,a ten per cent levy ing Chinese merchants,Anqua and Linqua,who knew that whatever on the value of all goods exported and imported,including imports of happened they would be the ones who would be shorn.made overtures to silver dollars;there was the combine between four of the leading the Viceroy.Linqua,however,died in August 1720,and before the end merchants and the Hoppo with his fellow officials,who,for their private of that year the Chinese merchants in Canton trading with foreigners purposes,more than doubled the export duty on tea and raised that on had formed themselves into a guild,the avowed aim of which was to quicksilver from four to seven taels a picul;there was the exaction of a encourage foreign trade,and by checking abuses,to protect foreign gratuity of Tls.1,950 for each ship-apart from the measurement fee- merchants from being imposed on by unscrupulous dealers.According on the pretence that it was a consolidation of various existing fees and to its regulations this guild was to have the monopoly of all trade trans- levies;and there was the introduction of the system by which a actions with foreigners,except for such odds and ends as fans,lacquered compradore (provision purveyor)could purchase from the Hoppo the wares,embroideries and paintings,and for chinaware,dealings in which monopoly right to supply a specified ship with all stores required,giving
20 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 1702, he appears under the style of the "Emperor's Merchant," perhaps regarding himself as the successor of the "King's Merchant," who in 1699 -in the teeth of opposition from the Viceroy's Merchant, the Tartar General's Merchant, the Governor's Merchant, and from even the Hoppo himself-almost succeeded in engrossing the trading transactions of the Macclesfield, the first ship to be sent to Canton by the new "English" East India Company. These Emperor's Merchants were not genuine traders, they carried no stocks of goods, and it does not appear that they had sufficient capital for the purchase of such, or that they had expert knowiedge of the goods handled; they were speculative brokers pure and simple, whose aim was to make a good commission from the monopoly of .all buying and selling transactions connected with a ship's imports and exports. Their pretensions and activities were strongly resented by the substantial merchants who had supplies of goods for disposal, but who were excluded from trading except on· conditions of sharing the profit w~th the monopolist on terms to be laid down by him. The Hoppo and the higher provincial officers were equally dissatisfied, as a broker with an imperial licence was a formidable competitor for perquisites which by accepted practice should be theirs and theirs alone; while the foreign merchants found themselves facing what might easily prove the most ruinous form of monopoly, namely, that held by a single person, ignorant and insensible, whose only aim was to extract the utmost possible from foreign trade and shipping, even if the process meant the ruin of his victims. Before 1705, however, these monopolistic monstrosities had disappeared. Their exactions had put an end for the time being to foreign trading at Chusan and Amoy, but business at Canton continued. Here for the next seventeen years trade between foreign and Chinese merchants was on a free basis, in that merchants were at complete liberty to choose with whom they would trade. But trafficking with the foreigner was becoming a rich and ever richer prize. In 1716 there were no fewer than twenty foreign ships at Whampoa (Canton's anchorage) and Macao, and the thought of that steadily growing stream of silver flowing into the private coffers of the Hoppo-who, apart from his rake-off from the actual duties, was now enjoying not only the heavy ship's measurement fees, running usually to over a thousand taels for a ship,2 but also a levy of six per cent on all trade deals-aroused the envy of his official colleagues. With spoils like this at his disposal the Hoppo could easily out-distance all rivals in Court and Imperial favour. To secure a share of the plunder the disgruntled talked of joining forces, while the leading Chinese merchants, Anqua and Linqua, who knew that whatever happened they would be the ones who would be shorn, made overtures to the Viceroy. Linqua, however, died in August 1720, and before the end of that year the Chinese merchants in Canton trading with foreigners had formed themselves into a guild, the avowed aim of w:hich was to encourage foreign trade, and by checking abuses, to protect foreign merchants from being imposed on by unscrupulous dealers. According to its regulations this guild was to have the monopoly of all trade transactions with foreigners, except for such odds and ends as fans, lacquered wares, embroideries and paintings, and for chinaware, dealings in which HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 21 were to be free to all, subject, however, in the case of chinaware, to a th~rty per cent fee to b~ paid to the guild. Prices were to be fixed by the gUIld m conference with the foreign traders, and departure from the fi:l';ed prices w~s to be punishable. The supercargoes of a foreign ship mIght be permItted to select one of the guild merchants to deal with, but such merchant would _be allowed only one half of the ship's trade, while the other half was to be divided among the guild members. As soon as a c~ntract for a ship's cargo had been made the supercargoes were to be oblIged to pay down cash beforehand. Members of the guild were to be divided into three classes; in the first and second classes were to be five firms each, and in the third six firms: new members could be admitted to the third alone on payment of an entrance fee of Tls. 1,000. This guild was the forerunner of the famous Co-hong of Canton mercllants; but it was not allowed to have its way without opposition. Its origin points clearly to officiaL instigation, as it was the officials who stood to gain most by the use of such an organization. In 1721, the first season in which the guild expected to begin operations, it met with such stout resistance from the supercargoes of the Company's ships that the Viceroy, on being appealed to, intervened, but only to gain his own ends, namely,. f?restalling of pro!:>able reprimands from Peking on the stoppage of SubSIdIes from Canton s lucrative foreign trade. The official could always get at the merchant, guild or no guild, but if its seeming withdrawal for a time "sooth~d" the foreign traders, their delusion was beneficial to all. For forty years the officials permitted the guild to be held in ~beyance, leaving to the supercargoes of each vessel the privilege of selectmg the merchant, or Il?-ercllants, through whom they wished to trade, but taking care that such merchants should be made amenable to the spirit of the guild regulations. Occasionally the merchants resisted, but as a rule they submitted. As the Company's Canton council wrote on a later occasion-"they are so fearful of their Mandarines that the v will even suffer the greatest of Evils, rather than run the Risque of Obtaining the Displeasure of these great Men, who keep them under inco.nceivable Subjection."3 During those forty years the toils round ~orelgn trade were drawn steadily tighter. Imposition and restriction followed each other relentlessly. There was the Governor, who was also Hoppo, terrifying ogre of an official, who attempted to establish a monopoly control of the English trade throuo-h a merchant of his own selection; there was the still more terrifying Vi~eroy, who was also Hoppo, who threatened to bamboo the Chinese merchants if they failed to carry out his commands, and who claimed, and secured, a ten per cent levy o.n the value of all goods exported and imported, including imports of SlIver dollars; there was the combine between four of the leadinomerchants and the Hoppo with his fellow officials, who, for their privat~ purposes, more than doubled the export duty on tea and raised that on quicksilver from four to seven taels a picul; there was the exaction of a gratuity of Tls. 1,950 for each ship-apart from the measurement feeon .the pretence that it was a. consolidation of various existing fees and leVIes; and there was the mtroduction of the system by which a compradore (provision purveyor) could purchase from the Hoppo the monopoly right to supply a specified ship with all stores required, giving
22 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 23 what he pleased and determining his own prices.The supercargoes were held the security merchant responsible for the purchase of them repay- convinced that all this could not have come upon them without ing him,as a rule,only one-fourth of what he had actually expended. co-operation between merchants and officials."We have undoubted The merchants protested and the supercargoes supported them,as they Reason to believe their hatred,their greediness in supplanting one did not wish to see the merchants go bankrupt.The stream of kickshaws, another in Trade by bribing the Mandarines to support those that gave however,to Peking continued,and no change was made in the status and the largest Sums,have brought these expenses upon all.And in these duties of the security merchants.Then came what must have seemed to Countries voluntary gifts are turned into Arbitrary and Annual many of the supercargoes and foreign traders the knock-out blow.It was Taxations.The Conclusion that we must make is this:That these a mandate issued jointly by the Viceroy and the Hoppo in May 1755. oppressions whomsoever they come from,or by whatsoever occasioned, prescribing regulations for the control of foreign trade,and claiming do,and will more and more fall upon the European Trade."4 Even the that such were based on existing practice.The first regulation stipulated edict,issued in 1786,of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung on his ascension to the that a hong,or security,merchant,before undertaking the loading or throne proved to be a will-o'-the-wisp.It had decreed that only duties unloading of a ship must first send in to the Hoppo a signed and sealed according to the officially issued Imperial tariff and the recognized application for a permit;and such application would be regarded as measurement fees were to be charged,and that the ten per cent levy on guaranteeing that the signatory would make good all that was due to the the value of goods was to be abolished.The Hoppo was adamant in hold- Hoppo.The second regulation prohibited shopkeepers from engaging in ing that the decree did not hold good for the current season,while the retail trade with foreigners except through a hong merchant,who would merchants claimed that as the remission had been obtained through their stand guarantee for the fulfilment of any contract between foreigner and representations at the Court,and that as this had cost them some thirty shopkeeper.All shopkeepers dealing with foreigners were to be thousand taels,it was only fitting that the foreign traders should make registered,and grouped in batches of five who were to be mutually good half of this amount,which,as there were ten ships in the port, responsible for each other.The third dealt with the tricks of the linguists, would be a trifle of fifteen hundred taels apiece who had been accustomed to issue permits for shipment of goods in the name of a hong merchant without having first obtained that merchant's But worse was yet to come.The idea of the merchant,or merchants, consent:that practice was to cease,and in future all such permits were selected by the supercargoes of a ship being security to the officials for to bear the merchant's seal and signature.The fourth regulation was the payment of all dues,duties,and fees,and for the observance of all important for its assumption of jurisdiction over the individual:by it regulations by the officers and crews of the ship,appears first in 1736. the hong merchant was made responsible for any crime committed by By 1750 it had become a well established fact,and from then on it would the supercargoes,captains,or officers,while the linguist,supercargoes, appear that payments to the Hoppo,formerly made through the linguists and captain were to be responsible for the conduct of the sailors.No -as the Chinese interpreters of the Hoppo's office were called-were wonder that-"All the Foreign Factorys have considered these Edicts in now made through the security merchants.The device was plainly an the same light,and have remonstrated to the Tsoungtouk (Viceroy)in official inspiration.It placed the merchants as a buffer between the order to obtain a Re-establishment of their former Privileges.We readily Olympian officials and the refractory foreign traders,who were ever prone joined with them in this their application;believing it a point of no small to force their way into the very presence of the gods with their importance to be at Liberty to deal with whom we pleased,we cannot, complaints and petitions,and made the merchants-who as Chinese however,boast of our Success,for though the Tsoungtouk gave us the subjects could be easily dealt with-responsible for all duties,fees,and promise of a Chop [Order]to authorize a Free Trade,yet this Chop gratuities for the ships concerned,no matter whether all the goods when published was a mere Evasion,leaving us entirely in the power of imported,and exported,by such ships were purchased,or sold,by the a few Hong Merchants to deal with us upon such terms as they should security merchant himself or any other person..To the merchants this think proper to prescribe." was not a welcome arrangement,as it made the security merchant for any specified ship liable to advance considerable sums on behalf of those Exasperated by these restrictions the East India Company decided who had any dealings with that ship,while reimbursement of such in 1755 to try and reopen trade at Ningpo,hoping thereby to get nearer advances was often far from easy to obtain.It had a further disadvantage. to the producing districts of the best silk,and of the brands of tea in The Peking Court had an insatiable thirst for European curiosities such which the Company dealt.To aid them in carrying out this enterprise the Company availed themselves of the services of Mr.James Flint,6 the as jewellery,clocks,watches,ornaments of all kinds,mechanical toys, first,and for a long time the only,employee of the Company who had musical boxes,and so forth,and the Hoppo was under orders to send so far mastered the Chinese language as to be completely independent a fresh consignment three times a year to his Imperial master,who of the official interpreters,whose efforts too often served only to "darken allowed him a grant of Tls.30,o00 a year for the purpose,one-half of counsel by words without knowledge."Thanks to Flint's assistance and which sum,the Hoppo claimed,was absorbed in packing,and freight of to the desire of many of the Ningpo and Chusan authorities to share in the goods from Canton to Peking.These curiosities were,with the the harvest that the Canton officials had thitherto been reserving for Company's permission,brought in by the ship's personnel,and the Hoppo themselves,the voyage of the Earl of Holderness in 1755,from the trading
22 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS what he pleased and determining his own prices. The supercargoes were convinced that all this could not have come upon them without co-operation between merchants and officials. "We have undoubted Reason to believe their hatred, their greediness in supplanting one another in Trade by bribing the Mandarines to support those that gave the largest Sums, have brought these expenses upon all. And in these Countries voluntary gifts are turned into Arpitrary and Annual . Taxations. The Conclusion that we must make is this: That these oppressions whomsoever they come from, or by whatsoever occasioned, do, and will more and more fall upon the European Trade."4 Even the edict, issued in 1736, of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung on his ascension to the throne proved to be a will-o'-the-wisp. It had decreed that only duties according to the officially issued Imperial tariff and the recognized measurement fees were to be charged, and that the ten per cent levy on the value of goods was to be abolished. The Hoppo was adamant in holding that the decree did not hold good' for the current season, while the merchants claimed that as the remission had been obtained through their representations at the Court, and that as this had cost them some thirty thousand taels, it was only fitting that the foreign traders should make good half of this amount, which, as there were ten ships in the port, - would be a trifle of fifteen hundred taels apiece! But worse was yet to come. The idea of the merchant, or merchants, selected by the supercargoes of a ship being security to the officials for the payment of all dues, duties, and fees, and for the observance of all regulations by the officers and crews of~ the ship, appears first in 1736. By 1750 it had become a well established fact, and from then on it would appear that payments to the Hoppo, formerly made through the linguists -as the Chinese interpreters of the Hoppo's office were called-were now made through the security merchants. The device was plainly an official inspiration. It placed the merchants as a buffer between the Olympian officials and the refractory foreign traders, who were e:er pror:e to force their way into the very presence of the gods WIth theIr complaints and petitions, and made the merchants-who as Chinese subjects could be easily dealt with-responsible for all duties, fees, and gratuities for the ships concerned, no matter whether all the goods imported, and exported, by such ships were purchased, or sold, by th.e security merchant himself or any other person. To the merchants thIS was not a welcome arrangement, as it made the security merchant for any specified ship liable to advance considerable sums on behalf of those who had any dealings with that ship, while reimbursement of such advances was often far from easy to obtain. It had a further disadvantage. The Peking Court had an insatiable thirst for European curiosities such as jewellery, clocks, watches, ornaments of all kinds, mechanical toys, musical boxes, and so forth, and the Hoppo was under orders to send a fresh consignment three times a year to his Imperialfiiaster, who allowed him a grant of Tls. 30,000 a year for the purpose, one-half of which sum, the Hoppo claimed, was absorbed in packing, and freight of the goods from Canton to Peking. These curiosities were, with the Company's permission, brought in by the ship's personnel, and the Hoppo HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 23 held the security merchant responsible for the purchase of them repaying him, as a rule, only one-fourth of what he had actually expended. The merchants protested and the supercargoes supported them, as they did not wish to see the merchants go bankrupt. The stream of kickshaws, however, to Peking continued, and no change was made in the status and duties of the security merchants. Then came what must have seemed to many of the supercargoes and foreign traders the knock-out blow. It was a mandate issued jointly by the Viceroy and the Hoppo in May 1755, prescribing regulations for the control of foreign trade, and claiming that such were based on existing practice. The first regulation stipulated that a hong, or security, merchant, before undertaking the loading or unloading of a ship must first send in to the Hoppo a signed and sealed application for a permit; and such application would be regarded as guaranteeing that the signatory would make good all that was due to the Hoppo. The second regulation prohibited shopkeepers from engaging in retail trade with foreigners except through a hong merchant, who would stand guarantee for the fulfilment of any contract between foreigner and shopkeeper. All shopkeepers dealing with foreigners were to be registered, and grouped in batches of five who were to be mutually responsible for each other. The third dealt with the tricks of the linguists, who had been accustomed to issue permits for shipment of goods in the name of a hong merchant without having first obtained that merchant's consent: that practice was to cease, and in future all such permits were to bear the merchant's seal and signature. The fourth regulation was important for its assumption of jurisdiction over the individual: by it the hong merchant was made responsible for any crime committed by the supercargoes, captains, or officers, while the linguist, supercargoes, and captain were to be responsible for the conduct of the sailors. No wonder that-"All the Foreign Factorys have considered these Edicts in the sa,me light, and have remonstrated to the Tsoungtouk (Viceroy) in order to obtain a Re-establishment of their former Privileges. We readily joined with theIIJ. in this their application; believing it a point of no small importance to be at Liberty to deal with whom we pleased, we cannot, however, boast of our Success, for though the Tsoungtouk gave us the promise of a Chop [Order] to authorize a Free Trade, yet this Chop when published was a mere Evasion, leaving us entirely in the power of a few Hong Merchants to deal with us upon such terms as they should think proper to prescribe."5 Exasperated by these restrictions the East India Company decided in 1755 to try and reopen trade at Ningpo, hoping thereby to get nearer to the producing districts of the best silk, and of the brands of tea in which the Company dealt. To aid them in carrying out this enterprise the Company availed themselves of the services of Mr. James Flint,6 the first, and for a long time the only, employee of the Company who had so far mastered the Chinese language as to be completely independent of the official interpreters, whose efforts too often served only to "darken counsel by words without knowledge." Thanks to Flint's assistance and to the desire of many of the Ningpo and Chusan authorities to share in the harvest that the Canton officials had thitherto been reserving for . themselves, the voyage of the Em-lot Holderness in 1755, from the trading
24 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS 25 point of view,was fairly successful.But the news of its trading at Ningpo two-masted snow,the Success,which the Company had just purchased was soon noised abroad,with the result that the Canton [Liang-Kwang] from Captain Wilson of the ship Pitt.By the 25th of that month the Viceroy and his colleagues got busy to bring this competition to a speedy Success was at Chusan,and there,after some difficulty,Flint succeeded end.Next year's voyage(1756),that of the Griffin to Ningpo was likewise in having a copy of the petition sent to the Min-Che Viceroy.On the successful;but on leaving Chusan,the Viceroy of Fukien and Chekiang loth July he was off Taku,and here with the rewarded aid of one of the [Min-Che]informed the supercargoes that as the duties during the local officials,whom he had known previously at Canton,he was able following season would be raised to the same level as those in force at to proceed up river to Tientsin,where he delivered the petition to the Canton,it would be better to trade there rather than at Ningpo.Despite Taotai,who forwarded it to Peking.Within a week the news came that the warning,the Company commissioned the Onslow for the 1757 season the Emperor had appointed a high commissioner to proceed to Canton at Ningpo.On arrival,the supercargoes were informed that the to inquire into the matters complained of,and that Flint was to Liang-Kwang and the Min-Che Viceroys had represented to the Emperor accompany him thither overland.Little did Flint think that his action that if the foreign trade at Ningpo were allowed to continue on the terms of penetrating to the threshold of the Imperial city,and in having his of the two previous years,the trade at Canton would be ruined,with petition brought before the Emperor himself was a bombshell,the consequent loss to the Imperial exchequer,as native goods shipped for explosion of which reverberated through every official yamen in the abroad at Ningpo,instead of Canton,escaped payment of customs dues Empire.The Imperial commissioner,with his colleague the Tartar and duties at stations intermediate between Ningpo and Canton.The General of Fukien,carried out his investigations,the result of which was Emperor's answer had been that all the ports of the Empire were open that while the Hoppo was cashiered and recalled to Peking in disgrace, to foreign trade,but that the duties at Ningpo should be the same as at the wrath of officialdom,through the Canton Viceroy,was vented on Canton.The Taotai (Customs.superintendent),however was desirous Flint and all foreign traders.On the 6th December Flint was summoned of effecting a compromise:he informed the supercargoes that the before the Viceroy,whither the Company's council of supercargoes- merchants and officials at Canton had paid Tls.go,ooo at the Court in ten men in all-insisted on accompanying him.The delegation was sub- Peking,to obtain a decision in favour of Canton,either the forbidding mitted to some rough handling from the Yamen underlings in an of foreign trade at Ningpo,or the raising of the duties there so as to unsuccessful attempt to force the foreigners to perform the kowtow.Flint make such trade prohibitive.In the end,trading terms for the Onslow was then informed that for his crime in proceeding to Ningpo,when he were agreed upon,and shortly after they had been settled the Min-Che knew that port had been closed by the Emperor's orders,he was to be Viceroy died.Any feeling of relief that the supercargoes may have imprisoned for three years,after which he would be deported and not experienced on hearing this news quickly evaporated when they learnt permitted ever to return to China.As for the Chinese who had had the that the deceased Viceroy's successor was no other than their most temerity to assist Flint in putting the petition into Chinese,thereby determined opponent,the Viceroy of the Liang-Kwang.The new encouraging him in law-breaking,he was to pay for the enormity with incumbent arrived before the lading of the Onslow was complete,but his life.The sentence was carried out in every detail.Flint was while permitting the supercargoes to finish their business in accordance imprisoned at a place in the vicinity of Macao,and was not released with the contracts made,the Viceroy sent them an order to the effect till November 1763,when he was deported to England and forbidden to that if they returned next year they would be called on to pay a measure- return.An unfortunate employee of the Company,who hadhad no ment fee of Tls.8,500 and the usual gratuity of TIs.1,950,while the connection with the affair,was forced to confess complicity and was duties on silk,tea,and chinaware would be quadruple those paid at beheaded.At all costs foreigners must be discouraged from acquiring a Canton.To make assurance double sure every foreign merchant in knowledge of the Chinese language lest they should use it for exposing Canton was given a copy of a mandate issued by the Viceroy,decreeing official misdoings,while the sentence of decapitation-even if the victim that in the future all foreign ships must come to Canton,and that trade were innocent-should be sufficient to deter any Chinese from acting as would not be allowed at the Chekiang port,Ningpo. a teacher. But the Company did not so easily accept defeat.With so competent The Viceroy had read the foreign traders a lesson.He reinforced an agent as Flint at their service they decided on making a formal it in the spring of the year following(1760)by another.On the order of representation of their grievances direct to the Peking Government.With the Emperor,as he asserted,a set of five regulations was issued to govern the aid of Flint and his Chinese teacher a petition,addressed to the the life and conduct of foreigners at Canton.These regulations ordained Emperor,was drawn up,the purport of which was a plea that the system (1)that supercargoes were not to remain over at Canton from one season of security merchants be abolished;that foreign traders be permitted to another,but were to return to their home country with their ships,or, to deal with anyone they pleased,and to pay their duties themselves if business was unfinished and accounts unsettled,to Macao to remain direct to the Hoppo,to whom they demanded unrestricted access;that there till the next season;(2)that hereafter hong merchants would be the fixed gratuity of Tls.1,950 for every ship be abolished;and that a held responsible for the conduct of the foreign traders to whom they check be put on the Hoppo's exactions and oppressive actions.On the rented buildings to serve as factories;(3)that the borrowing of money 1gth June,1759,Flint set sail for the north from Macao in the small by Chinese from foreigners was strictly prohibited on penalty of
24 HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS point of view, was fairly su~cessful. But the news of its tradir:g at Ningpo was soon noised abroad, with the result that the Canton [Lmng-Kwang] . Viceroy and his colleagues got busy to bring t?is comp~tition to a .spee~y end. Next year's voyage (1756), that of the Gnffin to NI.ngpo was hke:vlse successful; but on leaving Ch,usan, the Viceroy of FukIen and ChekIang [Min-CM] informed the sup.ercargoes that as the duties ~uring the following season would be raIsed to the same level as th?se m force :at Canton, it would be better to trade there rather than at Nmgpo. DespIte the warning, the Company commissioned the Onslow for the 1757 season at Ningpo. On arrival, the supercargoes were informed that the Liang-Kwang and the Min-Che Viceroys had represented to the Emperor that if the foreign trade at Ningpo were allowed to continue or: the terfU.s of the two previous years, the trade at Canton would be rumed, wIth consequent loss to the Imperial exchequer, as native goods shipped for abroad at Ningpo, instead of Canton, escaped payment of customs dues and duties at stations intermediate between Ningpo and Canton. The Emperor's answer had been that all the ports of the Empire were open to foreign trade, but that the duties at Ningpo should be the same ~s at Canton. The Taotai (Customs. superintendent), however was desIrous of effecting a compromise: he informed the supercargoes that t~e merchants and officials at Canton had paid Tls. 20,000 at the Court m Peking, to obtain a decision in favour of Canton, either the forbidding of foreign trade at Ningpo, or the raising of the duties there so as to make such trade prohibitive. In the end, trading terms for the Onslow were agreed upon, and shortly after they had been settled the Min-Che Viceroy died. Any feeling of relief that the supercargoes may have experienced on hearing this news quickly evaporated when the~r learnt that the deceased Viceroy's successor was no other than theIr most determined opponent, the Viceroy of the Liang-Kwang. The new incumbent ardved before the lading of the Onslow was complete, but while permitting the supercargoes to finish their business in accordance with the contracts made, the Viceroy sent them an order to the effect that if they returned next year they would be called on to pay a measure" ment fee of Tls. 3,500 and the usual gratuity of Tls. 1,950, whil~ the duties on silk, tea, and chinaware would be quadruple those paid at Canton. To make assurance double sure every foreign merchant in Canton w"!-s given a copy of a mandate issued by the Viceroy, decreeing that in the future all foreign ships must come to Canton, and that trade would not be allowed at the Chekiang port, Ningpo. But the Company did not so easily accept defeat. With so competent an acrent as Flint at their service they decided on making a formal repre~entation of their grievances direct to the Peking Government. With the aid of Flint and his Chinese teacher a petition, addressed to the Emperor, was drawn up, the purport of which ,~as a plea that the sy~tem of security merchants be abolished; that foreIgn traders be permItted to deal with anyone they pleased, and to pay their duties themselves direct to the Hoppo, to whom they demanded unrestricted access; that the fixed gratuity of Tls. 1,950 for every ship be abolished; and that a check be put on the Hoppo's exactions and oppressive acti~ns. On the 13th June, 1759, Flint set sail for the north from Macao m the small HART AND THE CHINESE CUSTOMS two-masted SD,OW, the Success, which the Company had just purchased from Captain Wilson of the ship PiU. By the 25th of that month the Success was at Chusan, and there, after some difficulty, Flint succeeded in having a copy of the petition sent to the Min-Che Viceroy. On the loth July he was off Taku, and here with the rewarded aid of one of the local officials, whom he had known previously at Canton, he was able to proceed up river to Tientsin, where he delivered the petition to the Taotai, who forwarded it to Peking. Within a week the news came that the Emperor had appointed a high commissioner to proceed to Canton to inquire into the matters complained of, and that Flint was to accompany him thither overland. Little did Flint think that his action of penetrating to the threshold of the Imperial city, and in having his petition brought before the Emperor himself was a bombshell, the explosion of which reverberated through every official yamen in the Empire. The Imperial commissioner, with his colleague the Tartar General of Fukien, carried out his investigations, the result of which was that while the Hoppo was cashiered and recalled to Peking in disgrace, the wrath of officialdom, through the Canton Viceroy, was vented on Flint and all foreign traders. On the 6th December Flint was summoned before the Viceroy, whither the Company's council of supercargoesten men in all-insisted on accompanying him. The delegation was submitted to some rough handling from the Yamen underlings in an unsuccessful attempt to force the foreigners to perform the kowtow. Flint was then informed that for his crime in proceeding to Ningpo, when he knew that port had been closed by the Emperor's orders, he was to be imprisoned for three years, after which he would be deported and not permitted ever to return to China. As for the Chinese who had had the temerity to assist Flint in putting the petition into Chinese, thereby encouraging him in law-breaking, he was to pay for the enormity with his life. The sentence was carried out in every detail. Flint was imprisoned at a place in the vicinity of Macao, and was not released till November 1762, when he was deported to England and forbidden to return. An unfortunate employee of the Company, who had had no connection with the affair, was forced to confess complicity and was beheaded. At all costs foreigners must be discouraged from acquiring a knowledge of the Chinese language lest they should use it for exposing official misdoings, while the sentence of decapitation-even if the victim were innocent-should be sufficient to deter any Chinese from acting as a teacher. The Viceroy had read the foreign traders a lesson. He reinforced it in the spring of the year following (1760) by another. On the order of the Emperor, as he asserted, <,t set of five regulations was issued to govern the life and conduct of foreigners at Canton. These regulations ordained (1) that supercargoes were not to remain over at Canton from one s,eason to another, but were to return to their home country with their ships, or, . if business was unfinished and accounts unsettled, to Macao to remain there till the next season; (2) that hereafter hong merchants would be held responsible for the conduct of the foreign traders to whom they buildings to serve as factories; (3) that the borrowing of money Chinese frOn;l foreigners was strictly prohibited on penalty of