INTRODUCTION rl about to be led off to the cave to die, but they continue to identify e collective olitical consciousness of the city. In the with the "power"of the ruler, which must not be transgressed(931-34 /872-75).Kreon, who probably reenters just as Antigone is finishing her lament, hardheartedly dismisses her mournful song as an attempt to delay the inevitable, and his brusque response deepens the pathos of her isolation(942-43/883-84) He sends her to her death satisfied that he is ritually" pure, "that is, unpolluted by shedding the blood of kin; but the ending will show his failure to escape so easily from ollution Antigone's last speech, once more in the dialogue meter of iambic trimeter, is addressed to the cave/tomb/bridal chamber that she is about to enter. Cut off from the human world, she turns to her dead family members in Hades. She addresses Polyneikes three times, once by the untranslatable head of my brother"( 60-61/899, 978/915), a phrase that echoes her address to Ismene in her opening line and so serves as another easure of her present isolation from the living. She already looks back at her mortal existence from the perspective of death. Forgetting Is- mene, she sees herself as the last of her family whom Persephone, queen of the dead, has received in the underworld(954-56/894=96) In the context of her absorption into the world below, Antigone to bury a husband or a child but only a brother, for with her parents dead she can have no other siblings. This is the nomos, the "law"or custom, "she says, by which she dared to become a criminal in Kreon's eyes(97679/913-15). This"law"seems very different from those eter- nal, god-given, unwritten laws on which she based her earlier defiance of Kreon(495-518/450-7o). The apparent contradiction between the two statements has troubled interpreters, some of whom, following Goethe's romantic reading, would excise the lines as a later inter polation based on a similar line of argument in Herodotos. But For a
INTRODUCTIO N girl about to be led off to the cave to die, but they continue to identify themselves with the collective political consciousness of the city. In the one place where they acknowledge her "reverence," they contrast it with the "power" of the ruler, which must not be transgressed (931-34 / 872-75). Kreon, who probably reenters just as Antigone is finishing her lament, hardheartedly dismisses her mournful song as an attempt to delay the inevitable, and his brusque response deepens the pathos of her isolation (942-43 / 883-84). He sends her to her death satisfied that he is ritually "pure," that is, unpolluted by shedding the blood of kin; but the ending will show his failure to escape so easily from pollution. Antigone's last speech, once more in the dialogue meter of iambic trimeter, is addressed to the cave/tomb/bridal chamber that she is about to enter. Cut off from the human world, she turns to her dead family members in Hades. She addresses Polyneikes three times, once by name (964 / 902) and twice by the untranslatable periphrasis, literally "head of my brother" (960-61 / 899, 978 / 915), a phrase that echoes her address to Ismene in her opening line and so serves as another measure of her present isolation from the living. She already looks back at her mortal existence from the perspective of death. Forgetting Ismene, she sees herself as the last of her family whom Persephone, queen of the dead, has received in the underworld (954-56 / 894-96). In the context of her absorption into the world below, Antigone makes the famous assertion that she would not have sacrificed her life to bury a husband or a child but only a brother, for with her parents dead she can have no other siblings. This is the nomos, the "law" or "custom," she says, by which she dared to become a criminal in Kreon's eyes (976-79 / 913-15). This "law" seems very different from those eternal, god-given, unwritten laws on which she based her earlier defiance of Kreon (495-518 / 450-70). The apparent contradiction between the two statements has troubled interpreters, some of whom, following Goethe's romantic reading, would excise the lines as a later interpolation based on a similar line of argument in Herodotos.37 But 37. Herodotos, Histories, 3.119. Goethe objected that the passage was unworthy of Antigone's "noble motives . . . and the elevated purity of her soul" and that it "disturbs the tragic tone and appears to me very far-fetched —to savor too much of dialectical calculation." He also says, "I would give a great deal for an apt philologist to prove that it is interpolated and spurious": Conversations with Eckermann (above, n. 5), 178 (March 28, 1827). Goethe has found many champions, and these lines have often been regarded as a later interpolation based on Herodotos. But, as Herodotos was working on his History in the late 4405, there is no serious chronology problem with his priority. See the Note on lines 967-79 / 905-15. The authenticity of the lines is also supported by the citation of part of the passage in Aristotle, Rhetoric, 3.1417329-33. For a cogent defense of the 19
INTRODUCTION Antigone's two accounts of her motives are complementary, not con- radictory. Now she reveals that more personal, emotionally vulnerable side that she had already expressed in the preceding lyrical exchanges with the chorus 38 That more intimate tone is also appropriate to her present situation lot only is she on the verge of death, but she is addressing het dead kin, particularly her mother and brothers, whom she expects to join minently in the underworld. In the poignancy of these last, reflective moments, she finally expresses her bitterness and sorrow at her loss of marriage and children. The speech obviously wins sympathy for her as the young victim of cruelty and injustice. In this loneliness and despair, she even questions the gods, who have thus let her die, when her reverence has earned [her] charges of irreverence"(- 91/924), but she does not forget her anger as she asks the gods to make her enemies ffer no more, and no less, than they have made her suffer(992-96/ 925-28 In this final moment when we see her alive, Antigone reveals again her capacity for hatred and steely determination alongside her softer side of devotion to the intimate bond of philia or family love. We recall the curses of other Sophoklean good haters in their last moments,no- tably Aias as he commits suicide. 9 Her curse, though uttered at he lowest ebb of despair, also looks ahead to the shift in the balance of power that will take place when the gods, through Teiresias, do in eftect answe lance and justice will not act on behalf of the girl who has served them. Antigone leaves the stage, and the mortal world, with a final, hopeless appeal to the city and citizens of Thebes, once more singing in lyric meter to the chorus(1005-11/937-43). Her isolation is total as she regards herself, again as if Ismene did not exist, as the only survivor of"the royal house of Thebes(1008-9/94). At the end of her previous speech, in the (92-96/925-28). Now she looks for sympathy to the human world that has punished her for her"pious impiety, her third use of such an expression and her last utterance in the play. Yet in all of her long row but no regre The following ode, the fourth stasimon, is one of the most compler Heroic Temper, 104-7. Some authoritative contemporary scholars still regard them as spurious, e-g, winnington- angra tic side in this scene and the preceding lament, see Winnington-Ingram, Sophocles, 13 8-46 39 Sophokles, Aias, 835-4. Cf. also Oidipous' curse on his sons in Oidipous at Kolonus, 1370- 96, and Polyphemus' curse on Odysseus, Odyssey. 9. 5:8-35
INTRODUCTIO N Antigone's two accounts of her motives are complementary, not contradictory. Now she reveals that more personal, emotionally vulnerable side that she had already expressed in the preceding lyrical exchanges with the chorus.38 That more intimate tone is also appropriate to her present situation. Not only is she on the verge of death, but she is addressing her dead kin, particularly her mother and brothers, whom she expects to join imminently in the underworld. In the poignancy of these last, reflective moments, she finally expresses her bitterness and sorrow at her loss of marriage and children. The speech obviously wins sympathy for her as the young victim of cruelty and injustice. In this loneliness and despair, she even questions the gods, who have thus let her die, when her "reverence has earned [her] charges of irreverence" (990-91 / 924), but she does not forget her anger as she asks the gods to make her enemies suffer no more, and no less, than they have made her suffer (992-96 / 925-28). In this final moment when we see her alive, Antigone reveals again her capacity for hatred and steely determination alongside her softer side of devotion to the intimate bond ofphilia or family love. We recall the curses of other Sophoklean good haters in their last moments, notably Aias as he commits suicide.39 Her curse, though uttered at her lowest ebb of despair, also looks ahead to the shift in the balance of power that will take place when the gods, through Teiresias, do in effect answer her plea for vengeance and justice. But evidently they will not act on behalf of the girl who has served them. Antigone leaves the stage, and the mortal world, with a final, hopeless appeal to the city and citizens of Thebes, once more singing in lyric meter to the chorus (1005-11 / 937-43). Her isolation is total as she regards herself, again as if Ismene did not exist, as the only survivor of "the royal house" of Thebes (1008-9 I 941 )- At the end of her previous speech, in the dialogue meter of iambic trimeter, she looked to the gods for justice (992-96 / 925-28). Now she looks for sympathy to the human world that has punished her for her "pious impiety," her third use of such an expression and her last utterance in the play. Yet in all of her long lament she expresses sorrow but no regret and no weakening of resolve. The following ode, the fourth stasimon, is one of the most complex authenticity of the lines see Knox, Heroic Temper, 104-7. Some authoritative contemporary scholars still regard them as spurious, e.g., Winnington-Ingram, Sophocles, 145, with n. 80. 38. On Antigone's more vulnerable and so sympathetic side in this scene and the preceding lament, see Winnington-Ingram, Sophocles, 138-46. 39. Sophokles, Aias, 835-44. Cf. also Oidipous' curse on his sons in Oidipous at Kolonus, 1370- 96, and Polyphemus' curse on Odysseus, Odyssey, 9.528-35. 20
NTRODUCTION and controversial in Sophokles. The chorus continue to distance them selves from Antigone, but their mythical exempla have a potential mul tiplicity of meanings that is appropriate at this critical moment in the action. All three of the myths they allude to illustrate imprisonment and so can easily point to Antigone. Yet all three also have implications that extend to Kreon as well The enclosure of Danae in her tower of bronze seems clearly enough to refer to Antigone. Yet the moral drawn from it, the inevitable power of the gods, will also come to refer to Kreon, particularly as Danae's myth includes the destruction of the powerful older king, Akrisios, who aprisoned her *o The chorus's next example, the Thracian king Ly kourgos who persecutes Dionysos and is punished with a madness in which he kills his own son, has even stronger relevance to Kreon hose anger and folly cause the death of his son. The third myth, a less familiar tale of jealousy between a wife and an ex-wife that results the bloody blinding of two sons, evokes the sufferings of the house of Oidipous, but it also has implications for the doom that is about to overtake the house of Kreon, in which an angry, vengeful wife will reak self-destruction with a bloody instrument. The chorus, of course, does not know what is going to happen and does not understand the full implications of their mythical exempla. As often in Sophokles, and in the Greek tragedy generally, the chorus members say more than they know; and the full meaning of their words appears only later, in The ode's closing reference to "the Fates, that live long ages"sets the tone for the entrance of the old blind prophet of Thebes, Teiresias, led on stage by a young boy or slave. After previous scenes with the Guard, Antigone, and Haimon, Kreon now meets a fourth challenge to his authority, but this time from an older rather than a younger man, and from the gods rather than from mortals. The prophet's opening address, "Lords of Thebes"(105o/988), like Antigone's last address to the leaders of Thebes (10o8 /g4o), in itself implies a less autocratic view of the city's government than Kreon had assumed, as he has been addressed earlier as the single "lord"of the land(e. g, 254/ 223, 319 Teiresias. as before to the 40. For of Akrisios at the hands of Danat's son by Zeus, Perseus, see Apollodoros, Library of i addresses the elders of the chorus merely as"m whereas Antigone 2-3/843-44, and"you rulers of Thebes"(1o08/o). It may dress Kreon, from whom she can expect no sympathy, and wa ernment more broadlv shared nong the Thebans than Kreon's autocratic or tyrannical mode
INTRODUCTIO N and controversial in Sophokles. The chorus continue to distance themselves from Antigone, but their mythical exempla have a potential multiplicity of meanings that is appropriate at this critical moment in the action. All three of the myths they allude to illustrate imprisonment and so can easily point to Antigone. Yet all three also have implications that extend to Kreon as well. The enclosure of Danae in her tower of bronze seems clearly enough to refer to Antigone. Yet the moral drawn from it, the inevitable power of the gods, will also come to refer to Kreon, particularly as Danae's myth includes the destruction of the powerful older king, Akrisios, who imprisoned her.40 The chorus's next example, the Thracian king Lykourgos who persecutes Dionysos and is punished with a madness in which he kills his own son, has even stronger relevance to Kreon, whose anger and folly cause the death of his son. The third myth, a less familiar tale of jealousy between a wife and an ex-wife that results in the bloody blinding of two sons, evokes the sufferings of the house of Oidipous, but it also has implications for the doom that is about to overtake the house of Kreon, in which an angry, vengeful wife will wreak self-destruction with a bloody instrument. The chorus, of course, does not know what is going to happen and does not understand the full implications of their mythical exempla. As often in Sophokles, and in the Greek tragedy generally, the chorus members say more than they know; and the full meaning of their words appears only later, in retrospect. The ode's closing reference to "the Fates, that live long ages" sets the tone for the entrance of the old blind prophet of Thebes, Teiresias, led on stage by a young boy or slave. After previous scenes with the Guard, Antigone, and Haimon, Kreon now meets a fourth challenge to his authority, but this time from an older rather than a younger man, and from the gods rather than from mortals. The prophet's opening address, "Lords of Thebes" (1050 / 988), like Antigone's last address to the leaders of Thebes (1008 / 940), in itself implies a less autocratic view of the city's government than Kreon had assumed, as he has been addressed earlier as the single "lord" of the land (e.g., 254 / 223, 319 / 2y8).41 Kreon responds to Teiresias, as before to the previous challenges, 40. For the death of Akrisios at the hands of Danae's son by Zeus, Perseus, see Apollodoros, Library of Mythology, 2.4.4. 41. Kreon himself addresses the elders of the chorus merely as "men," andres, whereas Antigone calls them "citizens of my native land" (866 / 806), "men of the city, with all your possessions" (902-3 / 843-44), and "you rulers of Thebes" (1008 / 940). It may be that she does not want to address Kreon, from whom she can expect no sympathy, and wants to empower those whom she still has some hope of moving; but she also seems to envisage a government more broadly shared among the Thebans than Kreon's autocratic or tyrannical model. 21
INTRODUCTION with angry and defensive accusations of bribery and conspiracy(cf 321- 59/280-314. Teiresias, however, is not Kreon's subordinate, but truly an authoritative spokesman for the divine order, and he replies to Kreon's insults with a prophet's foreknowledge, which takes even Kreon aback 1133-72/1064-97) For the frst time Kreon acknowledges weakness ("my mind is confused, 1170/ 1095), asks for advice, and submits to an other's advice: What must I do? Tell mel I will obey"(1174/1099) Even in yielding to the divine message, however, Kreon still gets his priorities wrong. The chorus's advice is clear: first release antigone then bury the body (1175-76 /1100-1101. With a misplaced concern for the political rather than the personal and for the soldier rather than the girl, he attends to the corpse first. By the time he reaches antigone, Kreon exits with the promise to release Antigone: "I am afraid it,'s best to observe the established laws through all one's life, to the end" (1189- 9o/1113-14). These "established laws"look back to the religious laws(or customs)pertaining to burial that Antigone had cited in her great speech of defiance(495-501/450-55), and in Kreon's mouth the the end"is ominous and foreshadows the horror that is approaching (In contrast to Antigone, who remains steadfast, Kreon is afraid and ves way. True heroism, of the unbending Soph an type, rests with her, not with him. Her last words are about piety, his about fear. The fifth stasimon, the sixth and last regular ode in the play, is a Thebes. Dionysos is a major divinity of Thebes, his birthplace; but the ode also invokes the god's broader association with Italy and Eleusis, associations that point to mystery cults that promise initiates happiness aenads, his frenzied female worshipers(1201-5/1126-3o), also reminds us of the female emotions that Kreon has tried to suppress by violence and imprisonment. It is as if these Dionysiac figures, like the murderous wife of the previous ode, become nightmarish projections of the female "madness"that Kreon 42. Kreon's reply inverts the order of events but nevertheless to Antigone while his attendants go to bury polynei wever, he accompanies his attendants first to pol (1x7l-S3/1196-1205). F.. H Letters. The Life and Wark of Sophocles(London, portance of burying Polyneikes for the welfare of the city. But this view does not t phecy that includes the burial alive of Antigone as part of the disruption of the relation between upper and lower worlds(u33-+/1064-733- 3. See, in general, Knox, Heroic Temper, 62-75. 109-10
INTRODUCTIO N with angry and defensive accusations of bribery and conspiracy (cf. 321- 59 / 280-314). Teiresias, however, is not Kreon's subordinate, but truly an authoritative spokesman for the divine order, and he replies to Kreon's insults with a prophet's foreknowledge, which takes even Kreon aback (1133-72 / 1064-97). For the first time Kreon acknowledges weakness ("my mind is confused," 1170 /1095), asks for advice, and submits to another's advice: "What must I do? Tell me! I will obey" (1174 /1099). Even in yielding to the divine message, however, Kreon still gets his priorities wrong. The chorus's advice is clear: first release Antigone, then bury the body (1175-76 / 1100-1101). With a misplaced concern for the political rather than the personal and for the soldier rather than the girl, he attends to the corpse first. By the time he reaches Antigone, it is too late.42 Kreon exits with the promise to release Antigone: "I am afraid it's best to observe the established laws through all one's life, to the end" (1189-90 / 1113-14). These "established laws" look back to the religious laws (or customs) pertaining to burial that Antigone had cited in her great speech of defiance (495-501 / 450-55), and in Kreon's mouth the word "laws" now tacitly acknowledges her victory. Yet the phrase "to the end" is ominous and foreshadows the horror that is approaching. (In contrast to Antigone, who remains steadfast, Kreon is afraid and "gives way." True heroism, of the unbending Sophoklean type, rests with her, not with him.43 Her last words are about piety, his about fear.) The fifth stasimon, the sixth and last regular ode in the play, is a prayer to Dionysos for help and purification at this time of crisis for Thebes. Dionysos is a major divinity of Thebes, his birthplace; but the ode also invokes the god's broader association with Italy and Eleusis, associations that point to mystery cults that promise initiates happiness in the afterlife. The allusion to Dionysos' maenads, his frenzied female worshipers (1201-5 / 1126-30), also reminds us of the female emotions that Kreon has tried to suppress by violence and imprisonment. It is as if these Dionysiac figures, like the murderous wife of the previous ode, become nightmarish projections of the female "madness" that Kreon 42. Kreon's reply inverts the order of events but nevertheless suggests that he might in fact go first to Antigone while his attendants go to bury Polyneikes (1183-90 / 1108-14). As we learn later, however, he accompanies his attendants first to Polyneikes' corpse and then goes to Antigone's cave (1271-83 /1196-1205). F.J.H. Letters, The Life and Work of Sophocles (London, 1953), 157-59, attempts to defend Kreon's choice on the grounds that Teiresias' prophecy has emphasized the importance of burying Polyneikes for the welfare of the city. But this view does not take account of the advice of the elders, who are equally concerned with the city, nor that part of Teiresias' prophecy that includes the burial alive of Antigone as part of the disruption of the relation between upper and lower worlds (1133-44 /1064-73). 43. See, in general, Knox, Heroic Temper, 62-75, 109-10. 22
INTRODUCTION attributes to Antigone and Ismene(see 542-43/491-92; 612-13/561 65). In the myths about these maenads, such as that of Pentheus dram- ed in Euripides'Bai ds fer umph over resistance from a king. The chorus ends with a character- ally dionysia for the gods epiphany, calling to him: O watch over the voices sounding in the night"(118-20/1146-48). They us point toward the powers of the gods, and the world-order local god of Thebes, to be honored in the all-night choruses of the citizens' victory celebrations(171-73/152-54). But the Dionysos of the last ode reaches far beyond the city of Thebes. His all-night choruses consist not of Theban citizens but of the fery stars in the heavens. The fire-bearing enemy Kapaneus, trying to scale Thebes walls in the first ode, was compared to a bakkhant in the madness of his wild rush against the city(15z-55/134-37); but the fiery bakkhantic madness of this last ode belongs to the god and will not be driven away from the city. The bright ray of the sun that heralded Thebes' salvation in that first ode is now answered by noctumal dancers outside the city; and the whole city, far from enjoying victory (167/148)or salvation, is in the grip of a"sickness"that may cause its doom(1214-15/1140-41) Once Kreon acknowledges his mistake, events move rapidly. The answer to the chorus's prayer for release from pollution is the Messen- ger's entrance with the news of a polluting death within Kreon's own house. Kreon is now in a state of living death(1238-40/1166-67), fitting punishment for one who confused the relation between the lin his dead (cf. 137-44/ 1068-73 e Messe wife, enters from the palace. Sophokles has carefully contrived this scene so that the Messenger makes his full report not to the chorus but to Eurydike. He thus makes us witness the bloody violence in Antigone's cave through the eyes of the mother and wife who will soon become the instrument of completing Kreon's tragedy The Messenger's narrative is one of the most powerful in Greek tragedy, and it vividly brings before us the ruin of Kreon's house. Hav. buried Polyneikes first, Kreon and his attendants approach Antig ones cave. He enters and finds her dead and haimon in a frenzy Now The contrast between the first and last odes is also suggested by the earlier joyful invocation from the desperat invocation to Dionysos here as the"god of many (g1
INTRODUCTIO N attributes to Antigone and Ismene (see 542-43 / 491-92; 612-13 / 561- 65). In the myths about these maenads, such as that of Pentheus dramatized in Euripides' Bakkhai, the god's female followers eventually triumph over resistance from a king. The chorus ends with a characteristically Dionysiac prayer for the god's epiphany, calling to him: "O You that lead the dance of the stars that breathe out fire, You that watch over the voices sounding in the night" (1218-20 / 1146-48). They thus point toward the powers of nature, the gods, and the world-order beyond human control. In the play's first ode the chorus invoked Dionysos primarily as the local god of Thebes, to be honored in the all-night choruses of the citizens' victory celebrations (171-73 / 152-54). But the Dionysos of the last ode reaches far beyond the city of Thebes. His all-night choruses consist not of Theban citizens but of the fiery stars in the heavens. The fire-bearing enemy Kapaneus, trying to scale Thebes' walls in the first ode, was compared to a bakkhant in the madness of his wild rush against the city (152-55 /134-37); but the fiery bakkhantic madness of this last ode belongs to the god and will not be driven away from the city. The bright ray of the sun that heralded Thebes' salvation in that first ode is now answered by nocturnal dancers outside the city; and the whole city, far from enjoying victory (167 / 148) or salvation, is in the grip of a "sickness" that may cause its doom (1214-15 / 1140-41).44 Once Kreon acknowledges his mistake, events move rapidly. The answer to the chorus's prayer for release from pollution is the Messenger's entrance with the news of a polluting death within Kreon's own house. Kreon is now in a state of living death (1238-40 / 1166-67), a fitting punishment for one who confused the relation between the living and his dead (cf. 1137-44 / 1068-73). At first the Messenger gives only the barest account of Haimon's suicide, until Eurydike, Kreon's wife, enters from the palace. Sophokles has carefully contrived this scene so that the Messenger makes his full report not to the chorus but to Eurydike. He thus makes us witness the bloody violence in Antigone's cave through the eyes of the mother and wife who will soon become the instrument of completing Kreon's tragedy. The Messenger's narrative is one of the most powerful in Greek tragedy, and it vividly brings before us the ruin of Kreon's house. Having buried Polyneikes first, Kreon and his attendants approach Antigone's cave. He enters and finds her dead and Haimon in a frenzy. Now 44. The contrast between the first and last odes is also suggested by the earlier joyful invocation to "Nike, the goddess of victory, with great name and glory" (167 /148), in a mood very different from the desperate invocation to Dionysos here as the "god of many names" (1191 / 1115). 23