4 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language? When you know a language,you can speak and be understood by others who know that language.This means you have the capacity to produce sounds that signify certain meanings and to understand or interpret the sounds produced by others.But language is much more than speech.Deaf people produce and understand sign languages just as hearing persons produce and understand spo- ken languages.The languages of the deaf communities throughout the world are equivalent to spoken languages,differing only in their modality of expression. Most everyone knows at least one language.Five-year-old children are nearly as proficient at speaking and understanding as their parents.Yet the ability to carry out the simplest conversation requires profound knowledge that most speakers are unaware of.This is true for speakers of all languages,from Alba- nian to Zulu.A speaker of English can produce a sentence having two relative clauses without knowing what a relative clause is,such as My goddaughter who was born in Sweden and who now lives in lowa is named Disa,after a Viking queen. In a parallel fashion,a child can walk without understanding or being able to explain the principles of balance and support or the neurophysiological control mechanisms that permit one to do so.The fact that we may know something unconsciously is not unique to language. What,then,do speakers of English or Quechua or French or Mohawk or Arabic know? Knowledge of the Sound System YE5He名N.CANI I DOUBr IT.MY TELL HIM WHOS CALLING? NAME IS OSCAR XNOSKRIBNWZTL· 包 "B.C."1994 Creators Syndicate,Inc.Reprinted by permission of John L.Hart FLP and Creators Syndicate,Inc. Part of knowing a language means knowing what sounds(or signs )are in that language and what sounds are not.One way this unconscious knowledge is revealed is by the way speakers of one language pronounce words from another The sign languages of the deaf will be discussed throughout the book.A reference to"lan- guage,"then,unless speech sounds or spoken languages are specifically mentioned,includes both spoken and signed languages
4 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language? When you know a language, you can speak and be understood by others who know that language. This means you have the capacity to produce sounds that signify certain meanings and to understand or interpret the sounds produced by others. But language is much more than speech. Deaf people produce and understand sign languages just as hearing persons produce and understand spoken languages. The languages of the deaf communities throughout the world are equivalent to spoken languages, differing only in their modality of expression. Most everyone knows at least one language. Five-year-old children are nearly as proficient at speaking and understanding as their parents. Yet the ability to carry out the simplest conversation requires profound knowledge that most speakers are unaware of. This is true for speakers of all languages, from Albanian to Zulu. A speaker of English can produce a sentence having two relative clauses without knowing what a relative clause is, such as My goddaughter who was born in Sweden and who now lives in Iowa is named Disa, after a Viking queen. In a parallel fashion, a child can walk without understanding or being able to explain the principles of balance and support or the neurophysiological control mechanisms that permit one to do so. The fact that we may know something unconsciously is not unique to language. What, then, do speakers of English or Quechua or French or Mohawk or Arabic know? Knowledge of the Sound System “B.C.” © 1994 Creators Syndicate, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John L. Hart FLP and Creators Syndicate, Inc. Part of knowing a language means knowing what sounds (or signs1) are in that language and what sounds are not. One way this unconscious knowledge is revealed is by the way speakers of one language pronounce words from another 1The sign languages of the deaf will be discussed throughout the book. A reference to “language,” then, unless speech sounds or spoken languages are specifically mentioned, includes both spoken and signed languages
Linguistic Knowledge 5 language.If you speak only English,for example,you may substitute an English sound for a non-English sound when pronouncing "foreign"words like French menage a trois.If you pronounce it as the French do you are using sounds out- side the English sound system. French people speaking English often pronounce words like this and that as if they were spelled zis and zat.The English sound represented by the initial letters th in these words is not part of the French sound system,and the French mispro- nunciation reveals the speaker's unconscious knowledge of this fact. Knowing the sound system of a language includes more than knowing the inventory of sounds.It means also knowing which sounds may start a word,end a word,and follow each other.The name of a former president of Ghana was Nkrumab,pronounced with an initial sound like the sound ending the English word sink.While this is an English sound,no word in English begins with the nk sound.Speakers of English who have occasion to pronounce this name often mispronounce it(by Ghanaian standards)by inserting a short vowel sound,like Nekrumab or Enkrumab.Children who learn English recognize that nk cannot begin a word,just as Ghanaian children learn that words in their language can and do begin with the nk sound. We will learn more about sounds and sound systems in chapters 6 and 7. Knowledge of Words Knowing the sounds and sound patterns in our language constitutes only one part of our linguistic knowledge.Knowing a language means also knowing that certain sequences of sounds signify certain concepts or meanings.Speakers of English know what boy means,and that it means something different from toy or girl or pterodactyl.You also know that toy and boy are words,but moy is not.When you know a language,you know words in that language,that is, which sequences of sounds are related to specific meanings and which are not. Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning The minute I set eyes on an animal I know what it is.I don't have to reflect a moment; the right name comes out instantly.I seem to know just by the shape of the creature and the way it acts what animal it is.When the dodo came along he [Adam]thought it was a wildcat.But I saved him.Ijust spoke up in a quite natural way and said,"Well,I do declare if there isn't the dodo!" MARK TWAIN,Eve's Diary,1906 If you do not know a language,the words(and sentences)of that language will be mainly incomprehensible,because the relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent is,for the most part,an arbitrary one.When you are acquiring a language you have to learn that the sounds represented by the letters bouse signify the concept;if you know French,this same mean- ing is represented by maison;if you know Russian,by dom;if you know Span- ish,by casa.Similarly,is represented by hand in English,main in French, nsa in Twi,and ruka in Russian
Linguistic Knowledge 5 language. If you speak only English, for example, you may substitute an English sound for a non-English sound when pronouncing “foreign” words like French ménage à trois. If you pronounce it as the French do you are using sounds outside the English sound system. French people speaking English often pronounce words like this and that as if they were spelled zis and zat. The English sound represented by the initial letters th in these words is not part of the French sound system, and the French mispronunciation reveals the speaker’s unconscious knowledge of this fact. Knowing the sound system of a language includes more than knowing the inventory of sounds. It means also knowing which sounds may start a word, end a word, and follow each other. The name of a former president of Ghana was Nkrumah, pronounced with an initial sound like the sound ending the English word sink. While this is an English sound, no word in English begins with the nk sound. Speakers of English who have occasion to pronounce this name often mispronounce it (by Ghanaian standards) by inserting a short vowel sound, like Nekrumah or Enkrumah. Children who learn English recognize that nk cannot begin a word, just as Ghanaian children learn that words in their language can and do begin with the nk sound. We will learn more about sounds and sound systems in chapters 6 and 7. Knowledge of Words Knowing the sounds and sound patterns in our language constitutes only one part of our linguistic knowledge. Knowing a language means also knowing that certain sequences of sounds signify certain concepts or meanings. Speakers of English know what boy means, and that it means something different from toy or girl or pterodactyl. You also know that toy and boy are words, but moy is not. When you know a language, you know words in that language, that is, which sequences of sounds are related to specific meanings and which are not. Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning The minute I set eyes on an animal I know what it is. I don’t have to reflect a moment; the right name comes out instantly. I seem to know just by the shape of the creature and the way it acts what animal it is. When the dodo came along he [Adam] thought it was a wildcat. But I saved him. I just spoke up in a quite natural way and said, “Well, I do declare if there isn’t the dodo!” MARK TWAIN, Eve’s Diary, 1906 If you do not know a language, the words (and sentences) of that language will be mainly incomprehensible, because the relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent is, for the most part, an arbitrary one. When you are acquiring a language you have to learn that the sounds represented by the letters house signify the concept ; if you know French, this same meaning is represented by maison; if you know Russian, by dom; if you know Spanish, by casa. Similarly, is represented by hand in English, main in French, nsa in Twi, and ruka in Russian
6 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language? The following are words in some different languages.How many of them can you understand? a.kyinii b.doakam c.odun d.asa e. toowq f. bolna g wartawan h. inaminatu i. yawwa People who know the languages from which these words are taken under- stand that they have the following meanings: a.a large parasol(in Twi,a Ghanaian language) b.living creature(in Tohono O'odham,an American Indian language) C. wood (in Turkish) d.morning (in Japanese) e. is seeing (in Luiseno,a California Indian language) f.to speak(in Hindi-Urdu);aching(in Russian) g.reporter (in Indonesian) h. teacher (in Warao,a Venezuelan Indian language) i. right on!(in Hausa,a Nigerian language) WE NEED SOME N MORE WORDS FOR OUR LANGUAGE. T船s99Rne LEATHERY WINGS? PTERODACTYL/ WHAT ABOUT WELL WHAT D'YOU WANT TO CALL IT PTERODACTYL RON. WELL AT LEAST PEOPLE WILL BE ABLE TO SPELL IT I RON2! RON! "HermanT is reprinted with permission from Laughing Stock Licensing Inc.,Ottawa,Canada.All rights reserved
6 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language? The following are words in some different languages. How many of them can you understand? a. kyinii b. doakam c. odun d. asa e. toowq f. bolna g. wartawan h. inaminatu i. yawwa People who know the languages from which these words are taken understand that they have the following meanings: a. a large parasol (in Twi, a Ghanaian language) b. living creature (in Tohono O’odham, an American Indian language) c. wood (in Turkish) d. morning (in Japanese) e. is seeing (in Luiseño, a California Indian language) f. to speak (in Hindi-Urdu); aching (in Russian) g. reporter (in Indonesian) h. teacher (in Warao, a Venezuelan Indian language) i. right on! (in Hausa, a Nigerian language) “Herman”® is reprinted with permission from Laughing Stock Licensing Inc., Ottawa, Canada. All rights reserved
Linguistic Knowledge 7 These examples show that the words of a particular language have the mean- ings they do only by convention.Despite what Eve says in Mark Twain's satire Eve's Diary,a pterodactyl could have been called ron,blick,or kerplunkity. As Juliet says in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet: What's in a name?That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. This conventional and arbitrary relationship between the form(sounds)and meaning(concept)of a word is also true in sign languages.If you see someone using a sign language you do not know,it is doubtful that you will understand the message from the signs alone.A person who knows Chinese Sign Language (CSL)would find it difficult to understand American Sign Language(ASL),and vice versa,as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Many signs were originally like miming,where the relationship between form and meaning is not arbitrary.Bringing the hand to the mouth to mean "eat- ing,"as in miming,would be nonarbitrary as a sign.Over time these signs may change,just as the pronunciation of words changes,and the miming effect is lost.These signs become conventional,so that knowing the shape or movement of the hands does not reveal the meaning of the gestures in sign languages,as also shown in Figure 1.1. FATHER (ASL) FATHER(CSL) SUSPECT (ASL) SUSPECT (CSL) FIGURE 1.1 Arbitrary relation between gestures and meanings of the signs for father and suspect in ASL and CSL. Copyright 1987 Massachusetts Institute of Technology,by permission of The MIT Press. 2From Poizner,Howard,Edward Klima,and Ursula Bellugi."What the Hands Reveal about the Brain"figure:"Arbitrary relationship between gestures and meanings in ASL and CSL," Copyright 1987 Massachusetts Institute of Technology,by permission of The MIT Press
Linguistic Knowledge 7 These examples show that the words of a particular language have the meanings they do only by convention. Despite what Eve says in Mark Twain’s satire Eve’s Diary, a pterodactyl could have been called ron, blick, or kerplunkity. As Juliet says in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. This conventional and arbitrary relationship between the form (sounds) and meaning (concept) of a word is also true in sign languages. If you see someone using a sign language you do not know, it is doubtful that you will understand the message from the signs alone. A person who knows Chinese Sign Language (CSL) would find it difficult to understand American Sign Language (ASL), and vice versa, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Many signs were originally like miming, where the relationship between form and meaning is not arbitrary. Bringing the hand to the mouth to mean “eating,” as in miming, would be nonarbitrary as a sign. Over time these signs may change, just as the pronunciation of words changes, and the miming effect is lost. These signs become conventional, so that knowing the shape or movement of the hands does not reveal the meaning of the gestures in sign languages, as also shown in Figure 1.1. FATHER (ASL) SUSPECT (ASL) FATHER (CSL) SUSPECT (CSL) FIGURE 1.1 | Arbitrary relation between gestures and meanings of the signs for father and suspect in ASL and CSL.2 Copyright © 1987 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by permission of The MIT Press. 2From Poizner, Howard, Edward Klima, and Ursula Bellugi. “What the Hands Reveal about the Brain” figure: “Arbitrary relationship between gestures and meanings in ASL and CSL,” Copyright © 1987 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by permission of The MIT Press
8 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language? There is some sound symbolism in language-that is,words whose pronun- ciation suggests the meaning.Most languages contain onomatopoeic words like buzz or murmur that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.But even here,the sounds differ from language to language,reflect- ing the particular sound system of the language.In English cock-a-doodle-doo is an onomatopoeic word whose meaning is the crow of a rooster,whereas in Finnish the rooster's crow is kukkokiekuu.Forget gobblegobble when you're in Istanbul;a turkey in Turkey goes glu-glut. Sometimes particular sound sequences seem to relate to a particular concept. In English many words beginning with gl relate to sight,such as glare,glint, gleam,glitter,glossy,glaze,glance,glimmer,glimpse,and glisten.However,gl words and their like are a very small part of any language,and gl may have noth- ing to do with "sight"in another language,or even in other words in English, such as gladiator,glucose,glory,glutton,globe,and so on. English speakers know the gl words that relate to sight and those that do not;they know the onomatopoeic words and all the words in the basic vocabu- lary of the language.No speaker of English knows all 472,000 entries in Web- ster's Third New International Dictionary.And even if someone did know all the words in Webster's,that person would still not know English.Imagine try- ing to learn a foreign language by buying a dictionary and memorizing words. No matter how many words you learned,you would not be able to form the simplest phrases or sentences in the language,or understand a native speaker. No one speaks in isolated words.Of course,you could search in your traveler's dictionary for individual words to find out how to say something like "car- gas-where?"After many tries,a native might understand this question and then point in the direction of a gas station.If he answered you with a sentence, however,you probably would not understand what was said or be able to look it up,because you would not know where one word ended and another began. Chapter 4 will discuss how words are put together to form phrases and sen- tences,and chapter 5 will explore word and sentence meanings. The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge ALBERT:So are you saying that you were the best friend of the woman who was married to the man who represented your husband in divorce? ANDRE:In the history of speech,that sentence has never been uttered before NEIL SIMON,The Dinner Party,2000 Knowledge of a language enables you to combine sounds to form words,words to form phrases,and phrases to form sentences.You cannot buy a dictionary or phrase book of any language with all the sentences of the language.No dic- tionary can list all the possible sentences,because the number of sentences in a language is infinite.Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences never spoken before and to understand sentences never heard before. The linguist Noam Chomsky,one of the people most responsible for the mod- ern revolution in language and cognitive science,refers to this ability as part of the creative aspect of language use.Not every speaker of a language can create
8 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language? There is some sound symbolism in language—that is, words whose pronunciation suggests the meaning. Most languages contain onomatopoeic words like buzz or murmur that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to. But even here, the sounds differ from language to language, reflecting the particular sound system of the language. In English cock-a-doodle-doo is an onomatopoeic word whose meaning is the crow of a rooster, whereas in Finnish the rooster’s crow is kukkokiekuu. Forget gobble gobble when you’re in Istanbul; a turkey in Turkey goes glu-glu. Sometimes particular sound sequences seem to relate to a particular concept. In English many words beginning with gl relate to sight, such as glare, glint, gleam, glitter, glossy, glaze, glance, glimmer, glimpse, and glisten. However, gl words and their like are a very small part of any language, and gl may have nothing to do with “sight” in another language, or even in other words in En glish, such as gladiator, glucose, glory, glutton, globe, and so on. English speakers know the gl words that relate to sight and those that do not; they know the onomatopoeic words and all the words in the basic vocabulary of the language. No speaker of English knows all 472,000 entries in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. And even if someone did know all the words in Webster’s, that person would still not know English. Imagine trying to learn a foreign language by buying a dictionary and memorizing words. No matter how many words you learned, you would not be able to form the simplest phrases or sentences in the language, or understand a native speaker. No one speaks in isolated words. Of course, you could search in your traveler’s dictionary for individual words to find out how to say something like “car— gas—where?” After many tries, a native might understand this question and then point in the direction of a gas station. If he answered you with a sentence, however, you probably would not understand what was said or be able to look it up, because you would not know where one word ended and another began. Chapter 4 will discuss how words are put together to form phrases and sentences, and chapter 5 will explore word and sentence meanings. The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge Albert: So are you saying that you were the best friend of the woman who was married to the man who represented your husband in divorce? André: In the history of speech, that sentence has never been uttered before. NEIL SIMON, The Dinner Party, 2000 Knowledge of a language enables you to combine sounds to form words, words to form phrases, and phrases to form sentences. You cannot buy a dictionary or phrase book of any language with all the sentences of the language. No dictionary can list all the possible sentences, because the number of sentences in a language is infinite. Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences never spoken before and to understand sentences never heard before. The linguist Noam Chomsky, one of the people most responsible for the modern revolution in language and cognitive science, refers to this ability as part of the creative aspect of language use. Not every speaker of a language can create