Common prefixes, suffixes and roots The terminology used in the book is easier to learn and use when it is understood. To facilitate this, the common parts of such terms: prefixes(beginnings), roots(middle parts)and suffixes(endings), are listed here, in alphabetical order. Meanings are also given, along with some examples of their uses Prefix/suffix/root To do with Examples in the text Prefix/suffix/root To do with Examples in the text a-an- lack of anuria, granulocyte, inflammation appendicitis, hepatitis, asystole. ystitis, gastritis nia of the blood anaemia, hypoxaemia, lactation lactic, lacteal ang angiotensin, haemangioma against coagulant, breaking down lysosome, glycolysis, antigen, antimicrobial blast ge! reticuloblast, osteoblast megaloblast, acromegaly, renomegaly, hepatomegaly bronchiole, bronchitis, micro sma∥ microbe, microtubules bronchus microvilli card- cardiac, myocardium, musc/ myocardium, myoglobin, myopathy, myosin chole holecystoki neoplasm, gluconeogenesis, neonate yto/-cyte nephro nephron, nephrotic cytoplasm, cytotoxic nephroblastoma, nephrosis de kin dermatitis, dermatome neuro- dys esembling myeloid, sesamoid, sigmoid menorrhoea, dysplasia carcinoma melanoma -ema edema, emphysem -ophth- xerophthalmia Inner endocrine, endocytosis ophthalmic, exophthalmos endothelium rring ecretory, sensory erythro auditory, gustatory one osteocyte, osteoarthri exocytosis, exophthalmos extra. utside extracellular, extrapyramidal path- ase pathogenesis, neuropathy fferent carry afferent efferent st stomach plasm substance pneumo- pneumonia gen- origin/ gene, genome, genetic, production antigen, pathogen, many polypeptide, polyuria, -globin protein myoglobin, haemoglobin -phagia excessive flow menorrhagia a hinorrhoea water hydration, hydrostatic sub- phrenic, subarachnoid, oce pat- hepatic, hepatitis excessively fast tachycardia hepatomegaly, hepatocyte thrombo. thrombocyte, thrombosis, hyper- excess/above thrombin thrombus hypertrophy, hypercapnia -tox- cytotoxic, hepatotoxic ypo- below/under hypoglycaemia, hypotension, urine anuria, polyuria, haematuria tracellular, intracranial vas, vaso ve Iction intraocular deferens vascular ondition hyperthyroidism, dwarfism
Common prefixes, suffixes and roots The terminology used in the book is easier to learn and use when it is understood. To facilitate this, the common parts of such terms: prefixes (beginnings), roots (middle parts) and suffixes (endings), are listed here, in alphabetical order. Meanings are also given, along with some examples of their uses. Prefix/suffix/root a-/an- -aemia angioanti- -blast bradybronchocardcholecyto-/-cyte dermdys- -ema endoerythroexoextra- -fferent gast- -gen- -globin haem- -hydrhepathyperhypointra- -ism To do with lack of of the blood vessel against germ, bud slow bronchus heart bile cell skin difficult swelling inner red outside outside carry stomach origin/ production protein blood water liver excess/above below/under within condition Examples in the text anuria, agranulocyte, asystole, anaemia anaemia, hypoxaemia, uraemia, hypovolaemia angiotensin, haemangioma antidiuretic, anticoagulant, antigen, antimicrobial reticuloblast, osteoblast bradycardia bronchiole, bronchitis, bronchus cardiac, myocardium, tachycardia cholecystokinin, cholecystitis, cholangitis erythrocyte, cytosol, cytoplasm, cytotoxic dermatitis, dermatome, dermis dysuria, dyspnoea, dysmenorrhoea, dysplasia oedema, emphysema, lymphoedema endocrine, endocytosis, endothelium erythrocyte, erythropoietin, erythropoiesis exocytosis, exophthalmos extracellular, extrapyramidal afferent, efferent gastric, gastrin, gastritis, gastrointestinal gene, genome, genetic, antigen, pathogen, allergen myoglobin, haemoglobin haemostasis, haemorrhage, haemolytic dehydration, hydrostatic, hydrocephalus hepatic, hepatitis, hepatomegaly, hepatocyte hypertension, hypertrophy, hypercapnia hypoglycaemia, hypotension, hypovolaemia intracellular, intracranial, intraocular hyperthyroidism, dwarfism, rheumatism Prefix/suffix/root -itis lactlymphlyso-/-lysis -megamicromyoneonephroneuro- -oid -oma -ophth- -ory osteo- -path- -plasm pneumopoly- -rrhagia -rrhoea subtachythrombo- -tox- -uria vas, vasoTo do with inflammation milk lymph tissue breaking down large small muscle new kidney nerve resembling tumour eye referring to bone disease substance lung/air many excessive flow discharge under excessively fast clot poison urine vessel Examples in the text appendicitis, hepatitis, cystitis, gastritis lactation, lactic, lacteal lymphocyte, lymphatic, lymphoedema lysosome, glycolysis, lysozyme megaloblast, acromegaly, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly microbe, microtubules, microvilli myocardium, myoglobin, myopathy, myosin neoplasm, gluconeogenesis, neonate nephron, nephrotic, nephroblastoma, nephrosis neurone, neuralgia, neuropathy myeloid, sesamoid, sigmoid carcinoma, melanoma, fibroma xerophthalmia, ophthalmic, exophthalmos secretory, sensory, auditory, gustatory osteocyte, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis pathogenesis, neuropathy, nephropathy cytoplasm, neoplasm pneumothorax, pneumonia, pneumotoxic polypeptide, polyuria. polycythaemia menorrhagia dysmenorrhoea, diarrhoea, rhinorrhoea subphrenic, subarachnoid, sublingual tachycardia thrombocyte, thrombosis, thrombin, thrombus toxin, cytotoxic, hepatotoxic anuria, polyuria, haematuria, nocturia vasoconstriction, vas deferens, vascular
The body and its constituents Introduction to the human body 3 Introduction to the chemistry of life 17 The cells, tissues and organisation o 29
Th its constituent e body and s 1 Introduction to the human body 3 Introduction to the chemistry of life 17 The cells, tissues and organisation of the body 29
Introduction to the human bod Levels of structural complexit ntake of raw materials and elimination of The internal environment and Dietary intake 11 Elimination of waste 12 homeostasis 4 Protection and survival 12 Homeostasis 5 Protection against the external Negative feedback mechanisms 6 environment 12 Positive feedback mecha Resistance and immunity 13 Homeostatic imbalance 7 Movement 13 Reproduction 14 Survival needs of the body 7 Communication 8 Introduction to the study of Transport systems 8 illness 14 nternal communication 9 Petiole 15 Communication with the external Pathe environment 10
Introduction to the human body Levels of structural complexity The internal environment and homeostasis 4 Homeostasis 5 Negative feedback mechanisms 6 Positive feedback mechanisms 7 Homeostatic imbalance 7 Survival needs of the body 7 Communication 8 Transport systems 8 Internal communication 9 Communication with the external environment 10 Intake of raw materials and elimination of waste 11 Intake of oxygen 11 Dietary intake 11 Elimination of waste 12 Protection and survival 12 Protection against the external environment 12 Resistance and immunity 13 Movement 13 Reproduction 14 Introduction to the study of illness 14 Aetiology 15 Pathogenesis 15
he body and its constituents The human body is complex, like a highly technical and human body, cells with similar structures and functions sophisticated machine. It operates as a single entity, but is are found together, forming tissues. The structure and made up of a number of operational parts that work functions of cells and tissues are explored in Chapter 3 interdependently. Each part is associated with a specific, Organs are made up of a number of different types of and sometimes related, function that is essential for the tissue and carry out a specific function. Systems consist of well-being of the individual. The component parts do not a number of organs and tissues that together contribute to operate independently, but rather in conjunction with all one or more survival needs of the body. The human body the others. Should one part fail, the consequences are has several systems, which work interdependently carry likely to extend to other parts, and may reduce the ability ing out specific functions. All are required for health. The of the body to function normally. Integrated working of body systems are considered in later chapters the body parts ensures the ability of the individual to survive. The human body is therefore complex in both its explain the fundamental structures and processes THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and AND HOMEOSTASIS the physical relationships involved between body parts. Physiology is the study of how the parts of the body work, and the ways in which they cooperate together to main- Learning outcomes tain life and health of the individual. Pathology is the After studying this section you should be able to functions, often causing illness. Building on the normal anatomy and physiology, relevant illng a define the terms internal environment and esses are co at the end of the later chapter a compare and contrast negative and positive LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL a outline the potential consequences of homeostatic COMPLEXITY The external environment surrounds the body and pro Learning outcome vides the oxygen and nutrients required by all the cells of body. Waste products of cellular activity are eventu After studying this section you should be able to ally excreted into the external environment. The skin pro m state the levels of structural complexity within the vides a barrier between the dry external environment and the watery environment of most body cells The internal environment is the water-based medium in which body cells exist. Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or tissue fluid. Oxygen and other substances Within the body there are different levels of structural they require must pass from the internal transport sys- organisation and complexity(Fig 1.1). The lowest level is tems through the interstitial fluid to reach them chemical Atoms combine to form molecules, of which there Similarly, cell waste products must move through the is a vast range in the body. The structures, properties and interstitial fluid to the transport systems to be excreted functions of important biological molecules are consid- Cells are surrounded by the cell membrane, which pro- ered in Chapter 2. Cells are the smallest independent units vides a potential barrier to substances entering or leaving of living matter and there are millions in the body. They The structure of membranes(. 30)confers certain prop- re too small to be seen with the naked eye, but when erties, in particular selective permeability or semipermeabil- magnified using a microscope different types can be dis- ity. This prevents large molecules moving between the tinguished by their size, shape and the dyes they absorb cell and the interstitial fluid(Fig. 1. 2 ). Smaller particles when stained in the laboratory. Each cell type has become can usually pass through the membrane, some more read- pecialised, and carries out a particular function that con- ily than others, and therefore the chemical composition of tributes to body needs. In complex organisms such as the the fluid inside is different from that outside the cell
The body and its constituents _4 The human body is complex, like a highly technical and sophisticated machine. It operates as a single entity, but is made up of a number of operational parts that work interdependently. Each part is associated with a specific, and sometimes related, function that is essential for the well-being of the individual. The component parts do not operate independently, but rather in conjunction with all the others. Should one part fail, the consequences are likely to extend to other parts, and may reduce the ability of the body to function normally. Integrated working of the body parts ensures the ability of the individual to survive. The human body is therefore complex in both its structure and function, and the aim of this book is to explain the fundamental structures and processes involved. Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and the physical relationships involved between body parts. Physiology is the study of how the parts of the body work, and the ways in which they cooperate together to maintain life and health of the individual. Pathology is the study of abnormalities and how they affect body functions, often causing illness. Building on the normal anatomy and physiology, relevant illnesses are considered at the end of the later chapters. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY Learning outcome After studying this section you should be able to: • state the levels of structural complexity within the body. Within the body there are different levels of structural organisation and complexity (Fig. 1.1). The lowest level is chemical. Atoms combine to form molecules, of which there is a vast range in the body. The structures, properties and functions of important biological molecules are considered in Chapter 2. Cells are the smallest independent units of living matter and there are millions in the body. They are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but when magnified using a microscope different types can be distinguished by their size, shape and the dyes they absorb when stained in the laboratory. Each cell type has become specialised, and carries out a particular function that contributes to body needs. In complex organisms such as the human body, cells with similar structures and functions are found together, forming tissues. The structure and functions of cells and tissues are explored in Chapter 3. Organs are made up of a number of different types of tissue and carry out a specific function. Systems consist of a number of organs and tissues that together contribute to one or more survival needs of the body. The human body has several systems, which work interdependently carrying out specific functions. All are required for health. The body systems are considered in later chapters. THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND HOMEOSTASIS Learning outcomes After studying this section you should be able to: • define the terms internal environment and homeostasis • compare and contrast negative and positive feedback control mechanisms • outline the potential consequences of homeostatic imbalance. The external environment surrounds the body and provides the oxygen and nutrients required by all the cells of the body. Waste products of cellular activity are eventually excreted into the external environment. The skin provides a barrier between the dry external environment and the watery environment of most body cells. The internal environment is the water-based medium in which body cells exist. Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or tissue fluid. Oxygen and other substances they require must pass from the internal transport systems through the interstitial fluid to reach them. Similarly, cell waste products must move through the interstitial fluid to the transport systems to be excreted. Cells are surrounded by the cell membrane, which provides a potential barrier to substances entering or leaving. The structure of membranes (p. 30) confers certain properties, in particular selective permeability or semipermeability. This prevents large molecules moving between the cell and the interstitial fluid (Fig. 1.2). Smaller particles can usually pass through the membrane, some more readily than others, and therefore the chemical composition of the fluid inside is different from that outside the cell
Introduction to the human body Salivary gl. (smooth muscle tissue) Serosa Liver Small intestine Large intestine The human being Anus ers or sn level muscle tissue Organ level Figure 1.1 The levels of structural complexity. Homeostasis Homeostasis is maintained by control systems which detect and respond to changes in the internal environ- The composition of the internal environment is main- ment. A control system(Fig. 1. 3)has three basic compo tained within narrow limits, and this fairly constant state nents: detector, control centre and effector. The control is called homeostasis. Literally, this term means'unchang- centre determines the limits within which the variable g, but in practice it describes a dynamic, ever-changing factor should be maintained. It receives an input from the situation kept within narrow limits. When this balance is detector or sensor and integrates the incoming informa- threatened or lost, there is a serious risk to the well-being tion. When the incoming signal indicates that an adjust- of the individual. There are many factors in the intern ment is needed the control centre responds and its output environment which must be maintained within narrow to the effector is changed. This is a dynamic process that limits and some of these are maintains homeostas
Introduction to the human body 5_ Figure 1.1 The levels of structural complexity. Homeostasis The composition of the internal environment is maintained within narrow limits, and this fairly constant state is called homeostasis. Literally, this term means 'unchanging', but in practice it describes a dynamic, ever-changing situation kept within narrow limits. When this balance is threatened or lost, there is a serious risk to the well-being of the individual. There are many factors in the internal environment which must be maintained within narrow limits and some of these are listed in Box 1.1. Homeostasis is maintained by control systems which detect and respond to changes in the internal environment. A control system (Fig. 1.3) has three basic components: detector, control centre and effector. The control centre determines the limits within which the variable factor should be maintained. It receives an input from the detector or sensor, and integrates the incoming information. When the incoming signal indicates that an adjustment is needed the control centre responds and its output to the effector is changed. This is a dynamic process that maintains homeostasis