CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION "I doubt whether any flower has a more interesting or romantic history than the Daffodil,or has filled the lives of so many well known garden lovers with pleasure. This book sets out to trace the history of a plant often described as the most extensively grown ornamental in the Br les.Commercially,it is inc disputably the most imp nite Kingdom,whi ce f the gl rea.A ut 2 the cr n,the latt antly in ich 2843%1 addition.the results of reedin have been distributed all over the tempe rate world The daffodil became inextricably linked with these islands through the writings of Shakespeare,Herrick. Wordswort ough its links in nature may be more tenuous than the numerous literary references sare most widery Toun m s Gut some h in n the nat unning fro The daffodil immortalised by Wordsworth is the most northerly branch of the genus and it has been claimed that it is native in Britain,although it is more likely to have been long naturalised.Its botanical name is Narcissus pseudonarcissus but its once common name,the English Lent Lily,indicates its long association with One might bouring Wales to pos a stronger link ne coun odil found号 wing there in a sem e o ock is also in a sin e colony otland has had some important daffodil c nections firstly through the Gla Peter Rar who seoured southern Europe for new species during the late 19th century.He brought these back to England where they grew in his nursery alongside the numerous new cultivars becoming available at that time.Scotland's second claim to daffodil fame cam e in the form of the northern laird,the Brodie of Brodie,a hybridist of considerable importance during the first half of the 20th century. In these islands, perhaps the ges daffodil links half of the 20th are in Ireland. especi ally thr gh work in the firs th ment and di sificatio within the mpus.The tury on th arrival in Dublin in 1879 of F.W.Burbidge,who was already reco gnised as an international authority on daffodils following the publication in 1875 of his The Narcissus:its history and culture)Enthusiasm for the flower quickly spread to several others,none more so than to William Baylor Hartland,a nurseryman at Mallow in Co Cork.H was succeeded in the early years of he 20th century by two giants in the history of daffodil breeding ntrim and F the earry 005 th 01 t.The Ne to keep late 19th century.while the USA.though late on the scene.now plays an increasingly significant role Whilst daffodil species have been cultivated since well before the birth of Christ and featured significantly in the cultures of several ancient civilisations,current garden varieties(cultivars)are the products of tory c f daffodil improvement has been well he development of this most popular garden plant.The exten 19
19 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION “I doubt whether any flower has a more interesting or romantic history than the Daffodil, or has filled the lives of so many well known garden lovers with pleasure.”(1) This book sets out to trace the history of a plant often described as the most extensively grown ornamental in the British Isles. Commercially, it is indisputably the most important bulb crop in the United Kingdom, which is the world’s largest producer, accommodating about half the global total area. About 29% of the crop is forced and 28% grown outdoors for flower production, the latter predominantly in the south-west. The remaining 43% is grown for dry bulb production, much of which is exported in a trade worth several million £stg a year(2). In addition, the results of pioneering work in breeding new cultivars have been distributed all over the temperate world. The daffodil became inextricably linked with these islands through the writings of Shakespeare, Herrick, Wordsworth and others, although its links in nature may be more tenuous than the numerous literary references suggest. In the wild, daffodils are most widely found in southern Europe from Spain and Portugal eastwards to Greece, but some extend northwards in Europe, southwards across the Mediterranean into North Africa, and beyond Greece into Asia. There, they are to be found in a relatively narrow latitudinal band running from Turkey to Japan, although in many of these areas they are doubtfully native. The daffodil immortalised by Wordsworth is the most northerly branch of the genus and it has been claimed that it is native in Britain, although it is more likely to have been long naturalised. Its botanical name is Narcissus pseudonarcissus but its once common name, the English Lent Lily, indicates its long association with England. One might expect neighbouring Wales to possess a stronger link with the daffodil, the country’s national flower. Surprisingly, this is not the case, the only daffodil found growing there in a semi-wild state being the Tenby Daffodil (Narcissus obvallaris). It was so named because of its discovery in a single colony near Tenby, Dyfed, but its true origin is uncertain and the Welsh stock is also thought to have arisen through naturalisation. Scotland has had some important daffodil connections, firstly through the Glaswegian, Peter Barr, who scoured southern Europe for new species during the late 19th century. He brought these back to England where they grew in his nursery alongside the numerous new cultivars becoming available at that time. Scotland’s second claim to daffodil fame came in the form of the northern laird, the Brodie of Brodie, a hybridist of considerable importance during the first half of the 20th century. In these islands, perhaps the strongest daffodil links are in Ireland, especially through work in the first half of the 20th century: for it was there that many of the important early advances took place. These led to considerable improvement and diversification within the genus. The work began in the late 19th century on the arrival in Dublin in 1879 of F.W. Burbidge, who was already recognised as an international authority on daffodils following the publication in 1875 of his The Narcissus: its history and culture(3). Enthusiasm for the flower quickly spread to several others, none more so than to William Baylor Hartland, a nurseryman at Mallow in Co. Cork. He was succeeded in the early years of the 20th century by two giants in the history of daffodil breeding: Guy L. Wilson in Co. Antrim and J. Lionel Richardson in Waterford. For almost 50 years until the early 1960s, they indisputably led the world in daffodil breeding and, in due course, they acquired a circle of young followers who have continued to this day to keep Ireland at the forefront. Other countries have also played their part. The Netherlands has been involved since the late 19th century, Australia and New Zealand since the early 20th century, while the USA, though late on the scene, now plays an increasingly significant role. Whilst daffodil species have been cultivated since well before the birth of Christ and featured significantly in the cultures of several ancient civilisations, current garden varieties (cultivars) are the products of the past 200 years. Owing to this relatively recent evolution, the history of daffodil improvement has been well researched and documented, facilitating analysis of the development of this most popular garden plant. The extent
oftoaimalsawRsAbeie2Stoeegtocaoareeckegl cated,am Among f ranks w ere several eccentrics and many charact whose successes emerged omntion of dedication and persistence.tinged occasionallihlit luck The in ments of the past 200 vears have come about through an increase in the number of polyploids within the daffodil population especially of the optimal ploidy form for Narcissus.the tetraploid Selection of such plants followed careful observation of their growth and floral characteristics.Initially,improvements were the result of natural hybridisation,while those selected somewhat later came from deliberate hybridisations. Hartland,for example,selected and named natural hybrids when he toured the old estates and monastic sites of Ireland in the late 's selected improvements had th or deliberate ng t h century.Selec by o d la nition of er de rable cs,an thepr m vements heen under oofficial'breeding s set up to compler nent the efforts of amateur enthusiasts is even more recent.While the history of the daffodil is largel y immutable asnects of its culture such as propagation,pest,disease and weed control are constantly changing as knowledge increases. Every effort is made below to provide up-to-date information on these aspects of growing. It is hoped that the f the daffodil tained in the n some way help in its c hile ges will ill tim an ma y of the seve in the im 200 evident.and every effort should be made to ensure that they remain so.For plants are fragile things and.once lost can never be replaced or recreated.Here,in this single genus,is a considerable resource that should be preserved as a living memorial to those it has inspired in gardens.literature.religions and civilisations over hundreds of ting cultivars have characteristics with a potential for ilita inued developm s education alue throughd ng the types or nave occure plants egar sh Lake District ed daffodils Growers and breeders of daffodils become increasingly restive as the short days of winter gradually lengthen into spring.A few warm days lead to that first exciting glimpse of some early cultivar such asFebruary Gold'.Then a pause during March as the cold winds keep the swollen buds tightly closed,followed by the headlong rush into the del Aprl.New s edlings thro rtn their nrs ers and the air ompletely overco eve hoped that in e ugh te page at fo adcnhsoehcswil overcome by thi l condit Efotonily eral reader for the d t of the daffodil is a mic sm of the development over the past 9500 vears of all cultivated plants used and improved by man.and on which we all depend for our material and spiritual wellbeing.The prophet Mohammed obviously regarded these last two eral tqmac when he ote"you have wo loaves.sell on and buy the hite flowers of the narcissus." 20
20 of this improvement is all the more remarkable because, predominantly, it was achieved by a relatively small number of dedicated, amateur hybridists. Among their ranks were several eccentrics and many ‘characters’, whose successes emerged from a combination of dedication and persistence, tinged occasionally with a little luck. The improvements of the past 200 years have come about through an increase in the number of polyploids within the daffodil population, especially of the optimal ploidy form for Narcissus, the tetraploid. Selection of such plants followed careful observation of their growth and floral characteristics. Initially, improvements were the result of natural hybridisation, while those selected somewhat later came from deliberate hybridisations. Hartland, for example, selected and named natural hybrids when he toured the old estates and monastic sites of Ireland in the late 19th century, whereas Richardson’s selected improvements had their origins in deliberate hybridisation carried out during the 20th century. Selection by observation was based largely on the recognition of improved vigour and other desirable characteristics, and early realisation that such improvements could be captured forever through the process of vegetative reproduction. Only recently has the science behind these improvements been understood. The establishment of ‘official’ breeding programmes, set up to complement the efforts of amateur enthusiasts, is even more recent. While the history of the daffodil is largely immutable, aspects of its culture such as propagation, pest, disease and weed control are constantly changing as knowledge increases. Every effort is made below to provide up-to-date information on these aspects of growing. It is hoped that the story of the daffodil contained in these pages will in some way help in its conservation – while there is still time and while many of the older cultivars still exist, albeit several rather tenuously. The genus Narcissus is unique in its completeness: from the species, through the early cultivars, to those of the present day. Almost all the major stepping-stones in the process of improvement, spanning 200 years, are present and evident, and every effort should be made to ensure that they remain so. For plants are fragile things and, once lost, can never be replaced or recreated. Here, in this single genus, is a considerable resource that should be preserved as a living memorial to those it has inspired in gardens, literature, religions and civilisations over hundreds of years. Existing cultivars have characteristics with a potential for imparting disease resistance to their offspring, thus facilitating the continued development of the genus. The daffodil also possesses considerable educational value through demonstrating the types of change and improvement that have occurred in plants since man began to grow them for his own use. And what a potential for tourism, perhaps in the form of a complete collection, sited in an area such as the English Lake District, already famed for its native or long naturalised daffodils. Growers and breeders of daffodils become increasingly restive as the short days of winter gradually lengthen into spring. A few warm days lead to that first exciting glimpse of some early cultivar such as ‘February Gold’. Then a pause during March as the cold winds keep the swollen buds tightly closed, followed by the headlong rush into the delights of April. New seedlings throw forth their first flowers and the air is full of expectancy and promise, the daffodil enthusiast being completely overcome by ‘Yellow Fever’. It is hoped that in reading through the pages that follow many others will be overcome by this blissful condition. Furthermore, in view of the burgeoning interest in garden history and plant conservation, this book may recommend itself not only to the specialist but also to the general reader: for the development of the daffodil is a microcosm of the development over the past 9,500 years of all cultivated plants used and improved by man, and on which we all depend for our material and spiritual wellbeing. The prophet Mohammed obviously regarded these last two general considerations as of equal importance when he wrote: “If you have two loaves, sell one and buy the white flowers of the narcissus.”(4)
References 1 Barr P R (1933)The renaissance ofthe daffodil in Britain Daffodil rear-hook 1933 21-36 2.Scope s.N.and Stables.L eds(1989).Pest and Disease Control Handbook.British Crop Protection Council, racknell. 3.Burbidge,F.W.(1875).The Narcissus:its history and culture.L.Reeve and Co.,London. 4.Colum,P.(1910).The white flowers of Narcissi.Irish Gardening V(51),65-66,p.65. 21
21 References 1. Barr, P.R. (1933). The renaissance of the daffodil in Britain. Daffodil Year-book 1933, 21-36. 2. Scopes, N. and Stables, L., eds (1989). Pest and Disease Control Handbook. British Crop Protection Council, Bracknell. 3. Burbidge, F.W. (1875). The Narcissus: its history and culture. L. Reeve and Co., London. 4. Colum, P. (1910). The white flowers of Narcissi. Irish Gardening V(51), 65-66, p. 65
CHAPTER 2 THE DAFFODIL IN HISTORY Ancient Greece and Egypt The daffodil has been an important constituent of gardens since earliest times,when man first cast off the role of hunter-gatherer and settled to cultivate plants. Initially,the be sof secondary importance.ther medicinal;th auty cance being d of daffodils have howe cerain predate the establishment of omamental gardens. been appre The story begins in Greece,the home of the Poets'daffodil,where its cultivation was recorded by Theophrastus of Eresus well before the birth of Christ.He referred to the gathering of Narcissus seed and the division and planting of the large,round,fleshy roots. The na itself is of Greek s per M in he aps us nda ry youth of that name There a of the is de d at his reflection in a pool of water-a daffodil w where he died Anothe possible derivation.and onewhich erta aludesto the medicnprorofNrisfrom the Greekrd (p)rom which comes narcotic,indicating the stupefying effects of daffodil sap which can,in large quantities,prove lethal. In Ancientypcd with funcrals and burials a place in religious cerlant in a na d plant i been cul nd 888. of f of e cal the at Hawara.Thes aths tho aht to h made two thousand y ears hefore thei discover.may in fact have been the work of Greeks resident in Egypt rather than of Egy ntians themselves Nevertheless,it is known that Egyptians have held N.tazerta in high regard over many centuries as a personal adornment. The Mughals and Islam N.tazetta is th ought to hav for it is d al the of M id rthe Mediterranean shores from snai n to the middle fast and onwa ds thr hanistan.India and parts of Central Asia to China and Japan.This distribution is,however,more likely to have resulted from movements of man, especially the eastward movement of the Mughals from Persia(modern-day Iran)during the 15th century. rm of N.tazetta fou d in I dia is most likely to have arrived there with the Mughal Emperor Babur n the spienc s or Perslan gar India The garde n,and nd thes ign of Akbar (1556-1605)( It is surprising to learn that flowers played such an important,decorative role in the gardens of Islam some considerable time before they assumed a similar role in the gardens of Europe.Yet it was reported that spring had barely arrived before bulbs were in flower in the gardens of Afghanistan and northern India,Narcissi 22
22 CHAPTER 2 THE DAFFODIL IN HISTORY Ancient Greece and Egypt The daffodil has been an important constituent of gardens since earliest times, when man first cast off the role of hunter-gatherer and settled to cultivate plants. Initially, the beauty of the daffodil flowers was of secondary importance, their chief significance being medicinal; they may have also played a part in the religious ceremonies of ancient civilisations. The aesthetic and spiritually uplifting qualities of daffodils have, however, been appreciated by man for very many centuries and certainly predate the establishment of ornamental gardens. The story begins in Greece, the home of the ‘Poets’ daffodil, where its cultivation was recorded by Theophrastus of Eresus well before the birth of Christ. He referred to the gathering of Narcissus seed and the division and planting of the large, round, fleshy roots. The name Narcissus itself is of Greek origin, perhaps used in honour of the legendary youth of that name. There are a number of variations of the story, all of them involving his death as he gazed, entranced, at his own reflection in a pool of water – a daffodil grew where he died. Another possible derivation, and one which certainly alludes to the medicinal properties of Narcissus, is from the Greek word narkao (ναρκάω), from which comes narcotic, indicating the stupefying effects of daffodil sap which can, in large quantities, prove lethal. In Ancient Egypt, the flowers of another type of daffodil, N. tazetta, held a place in religious ceremonies and are known to have been associated with funerals and burials. N. tazetta has long been a naturalised plant in Egypt and has been cultivated for its delightful scent for almost as long. In 1888, W. Flinders Petrie unearthed several wreaths composed of flowers of N. tazetta while carrying out archaeological excavations in the cemetery at Hawara. These perfectly preserved wreaths, thought to have been made two thousand years before their discovery, may in fact have been the work of Greeks resident in Egypt rather than of Egyptians themselves. Nevertheless, it is known that Egyptians have held N. tazetta in high regard over many centuries as a personal adornment. The Mughals and Islam N. tazetta is thought to have originated in the southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula and the adjacent areas of present-day North Africa at a time when these two areas were land-linked. Some authorities hold that the natural distribution of N. tazetta is much wider than this, for it is found along both northern and southern Mediterranean shores, from Spain to the Middle East and onwards through Afghanistan, India and parts of Central Asia to China and Japan. This distribution is, however, more likely to have resulted from movements of man, especially the eastward movement of the Mughals from Persia (modern-day Iran) during the 15th century. The form of N. tazetta found in India is most likely to have arrived there with the Mughal Emperor Babur (1483-1530) who had become familiar with the splendours of Persian gardens during his early formative years. Later, Babur established gardens at Kabul in modern Afghanistan, and at Agra, site of the famous Taj Mahal in India. There are many references to his colourful gardens in his memoirs, the Babur-nama, and these are beautifully illustrated in later manuscripts produced during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605)(1) . It is surprising to learn that flowers played such an important, decorative role in the gardens of Islam some considerable time before they assumed a similar role in the gardens of Europe. Yet it was reported that spring had barely arrived before bulbs were in flower in the gardens of Afghanistan and northern India, Narcissi featuring prominently among them. Their decorative popularity in gardens was copied on to carpets, clothes and other items of everyday use and wear. The most likely type of daffodil to be found in this region was N. tazetta
1 5th ted flo ha he for has been in China where it is known as the Sacred Chinese Lily.This is N.var chin sis which is similar to those found in Kashmir,Japan and areas of central Asia such as Uzbekistan.All are triploids containing 30 chromosomes (x=10) The ffodil has been known in the gardens of Turkey as long as it has been in thos veen a e countries through th of Persia modemn- 11g101 In the d I 6th ce m fait曲fo)2ot Ma rew both vellow and wh te daffodils in his famo gardens at karaag ere widelv grown on a field scale in Turkey and it became a leisure pastime to visit areas where the flowers grew in e such illsid camfofor itsafdi that even today tiskown field ofh daffodils' By the 18th century,daffodil 269 dist snct types were Acorded Summary） nd ved on the t mbol of Mohammed stated that persons who pass on to paradise live terally in company of those they loved most on earth.There is a record of Hasan Efendi,a great lover of daffodils and other flowers.officiating in his mosque when a member of the congregation asked:"Is there a man on earth who bears the sign that Paradise will be his destiny?"Looking around Hasan Efendi saw a gardener in the sean岁adpanpomeohmsdesmaesfioeswil ask China and its Sacred Lily The variety of n tazetta kn chinensis has heen gr own and revered in China since time immemorial.Known as the Sacred Lily of China it is the symbol of the Chinese spring Its origins are chronicled in ancient folklore in the story of Sung Li.As a young man,he journeyed westwards to see the world and whilst in the Middle East was set upon.robbe d and left for dead.He was found by hi to h th.When th ng sprng amved,Sung LI was enc by th o the hermit When Chi that his fathe had left him The daffodils th ed in th oil and multi extent that Sung Li was able to sell bulbs and thus eamn a living.N.era var.chinensis is to be found in Chinese art dating back to the 11th century.One painting,entitled New Year's Day,shows daffodils growing by a streamside.They are also illustrated on pottery of the Sung Dynasty from the 13th century.In addition to being known as the Sacred Lily,they were also referred to by other names,such as the Water Fairy Flower and the New China in whic n th les stood in water. Ye Into Northern Europe The earliest species to be moved northwards by man was N.Doericus.This movement is thought to have taken place at the time of the expansion of the Roman Empire.The reason for this assumption is that the favourite poet of the period was Ovid(43 BC-17 AD)and he is known to have been a great admirer of the Narcissus.The works of Ovid were so popular with the Romans that many of their villas were decorated with tiles depicting 23
23 and the earliest known reference to it in India is to be found in the Ain-i Akbari (1596) of Abu L-Fazil(2) that is an historical treatise on the Mughal period. In addition to its widespread use in Mughal gardens in the 15th and 16th centuries, N. tazetta, with its strongly scented flowers, has been cultivated in Kashmir for hundreds of years, as it has been in China where it is known as the Sacred Chinese Lily. This is N. tazetta var. chinensis, which is similar to those found in Kashmir, Japan and areas of central Asia such as Uzbekistan. All are triploids containing 30 chromosomes (x = 10). The daffodil has been known in the gardens of Turkey as long as it has been in those of Persia (modernday Iran), Afghanistan and India, there being a link between all these countries through the Islamic religion. In the whole of this area, it was N. tazetta that predominated. It is not surprising, therefore, that in Turkey during the 16th century Ebussad Efendi, head of the Islamic faith for 22 years during the reign of Soliman the Magnificent, grew both yellow and white daffodils in his famous gardens at Karaagac. During the 1700s, Narcissi were widely grown on a field scale in Turkey and it became a leisure pastime to visit areas where the flowers grew in profusion. One such hillside became so famous for its daffodils that even today it is known as “the field of the daffodils”(3) . By the 18th century, daffodils had become so popular and developed to such a degree that no fewer than 269 distinct types were recorded in the Netayieu el Ezhar (Floral Summary) of Ubeydi(4), among which seven double sorts were listed. As in Ancient Egypt, the daffodil was associated with burial and was frequently found engraved on the tombstones of followers of Islam. The daffodil was, in fact, a symbol of eternity and the promise of paradise in the after-life. A ‘Hadis’ of Mohammed stated that persons who pass on to paradise live eternally in the company of those they loved most on earth. There is a record of Hasan Efendi, a great lover of daffodils and other flowers, officiating in his mosque when a member of the congregation asked: “Is there a man on earth who bears the sign that Paradise will be his destiny?” Looking around Hasan Efendi saw a gardener in the congregation whom he asked to stand up; and pointing to him said: “Here is one, because lovers of flowers will always have a place in Paradise.”(5) China and its Sacred Lily The variety of N. tazetta known as chinensis has been grown and revered in China since time immemorial. Known as the Sacred Lily of China it is the symbol of the Chinese spring. Its origins are chronicled in ancient folklore in the story of Sung Li. As a young man, he journeyed westwards to see the world and whilst in the Middle East was set upon, robbed and left for dead. He was found by a hermit, who nursed him back to health. When the following spring arrived, Sung Li was enchanted by the masses of beautiful scented flowers that appeared along the sides of the creek close to the hermit’s home. When fully recovered, Sung Li dug up some of the bulbs and set off for China where he planted them on the small, barren plot of land that his father had left him. The daffodils thrived in the poor soil and multiplied to such an extent that Sung Li was able to sell bulbs and thus earn a living. N. tazetta var. chinensis is to be found in Chinese art dating back to the 11th century. One painting, entitled New Year’s Day, shows daffodils growing by a streamside. They are also illustrated on pottery of the Sung Dynasty from the 13th century. In addition to being known as the Sacred Lily, they were also referred to by other names, such as the Water Fairy Flower and the New Year Lily. The former name alluded to a common method of culture in China in which the bulbs were placed in bowls filled with pebbles stood in water. Using this method, the daffodils were forced into flower for the Chinese New Year in January. Into Northern Europe The earliest species to be moved northwards by man was N. poeticus. This movement is thought to have taken place at the time of the expansion of the Roman Empire. The reason for this assumption is that the favourite poet of the period was Ovid (43 BC-17 AD) and he is known to have been a great admirer of the Narcissus. The works of Ovid were so popular with the Romans that many of their villas were decorated with tiles depicting