How to write a paper Mike Ashby Engineering Department Trumpington Street,Cambridge CB2 IPZ,UK 7h Edition,August 2011 人 出3HdKW How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 1 MFA, 16/08/11 How to write a paper Mike Ashby Engineering Department Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK 7th Edition, August 2011
How to write a paper Mike Ashby, Engineering Department,University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 IPZ,UK hedition,August 2011 This brief manual gives guidance in writing a paper about your research.Most of the advice applies equally to your thesis or to writing a research proposal.The content of the paper reflects the kind of work you have done:experimental,theoretical,computational.I have used, as a model,a typical Materials project:one combining experiment with modeling and computation to explain some aspect of material behavior. Sections I to 8 give guidelines for clear writing with brief examples.The Appendix contains longer examples of effective and ineffective writing.The manual is prescriptive-it has to be,if it is to be short.It is designed to help those struggling with their first paper,or those who have written several but find it difficult.Certain sections may seem to you to be elementary;they are there because,to others,they are not.Section 8,on Style,is open-ended, the starting point for more exciting things. Contents 1 The Design P2 2 The Market-Who are your readers? p3 3 The Concept-Making a Concept-sheet p4 4 Embodiment-The first draft p7 5 Detail I-Grammar p12 6 Detail II-Spelling p15 7 Detail III-Punctuation p15 8 Detail IV-Style P19 9 Further Reading p24 10 Appendix:Examples of effective and ineffective writing P26 How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 2 MFA, 16/08/11 How to write a paper Mike Ashby, Engineering Department, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK 7th edition, August 2011 This brief manual gives guidance in writing a paper about your research. Most of the advice applies equally to your thesis or to writing a research proposal. The content of the paper reflects the kind of work you have done: experimental, theoretical, computational. I have used, as a model, a typical Materials project: one combining experiment with modeling and computation to explain some aspect of material behavior. Sections 1 to 8 give guidelines for clear writing with brief examples. The Appendix contains longer examples of effective and ineffective writing. The manual is prescriptive – it has to be, if it is to be short. It is designed to help those struggling with their first paper, or those who have written several but find it difficult. Certain sections may seem to you to be elementary; they are there because, to others, they are not. Section 8, on Style, is open-ended, the starting point for more exciting things. Contents 1 The Design p 2 2 The Market – Who are your readers? p 3 3 The Concept – Making a Concept-sheet p 4 4 Embodiment – The first draft p 7 5 Detail I – Grammar p 12 6 Detail II – Spelling p 15 7 Detail III – Punctuation p 15 8 Detail IV – Style p 19 9 Further Reading p 24 10 Appendix: Examples of effective and ineffective writing p 26
1 THE DESIGN Well written papers are read,remembered,cited.Poorly written papers are not. To write well,you need a design.Like any design activity,there are a number of steps (Figure 1).I've used the language of engineering design here-it fits well. (a)The Market Need.What is the purpose of the document?Who will read it?How will the reader use it?The answers help you decide the length,the level of detail,the style. (b)The Concept.Good writing starts with a plan.Writers have different ways of developing plans.I find the concept-sheet(Section 3,below)is a good way to do it. Market need Identify your readers Concept Construct the master-plan Embodiment Make the first draft —Edi Detail Refine:clarity,readability,style Product The visual presentation Figure I.The Design Process.Designing a paper is like designing anything else:there are five essential steps. (c) (d)The Embodiment.The embodiment is the first draft.Get the facts down on paper without worrying about style;make drafts of each section;develop the calculations;sketch the figures;assemble references. (e)Detail.Now comes the crafting:clarity,balance,readability:in a word-style. (f)The End-Product.Appearance is important:good layout,clear headings,well-designed figures. The Sections that follow expand on each of these in turn How to write a paper J MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 3 MFA, 16/08/11 1 THE DESIGN Well written papers are read, remembered, cited. Poorly written papers are not. To write well, you need a design. Like any design activity, there are a number of steps (Figure 1). I’ve used the language of engineering design here – it fits well. (a) The Market Need. What is the purpose of the document? Who will read it? How will the reader use it? The answers help you decide the length, the level of detail, the style. (b) The Concept. Good writing starts with a plan. Writers have different ways of developing plans. I find the concept-sheet (Section 3, below) is a good way to do it. (c) (d) The Embodiment. The embodiment is the first draft. Get the facts down on paper without worrying about style; make drafts of each section; develop the calculations; sketch the figures; assemble references. (e) Detail. Now comes the crafting: clarity, balance, readability; in a word – style. (f) The End-Product. Appearance is important: good layout, clear headings, well-designed figures. The Sections that follow expand on each of these in turn. Figure 1. The Design Process. Designing a paper is like designing anything else: there are five essential steps
2 THE MARKET-Who are your readers? Your market is your readers.Put yourself in their shoes:what,if you were they,would you wish to find? The readers of your thesis are your examiners.They expect details of all relevant parts of your research:why you did it,its background,your thinking,what you did,your conclusions and your views on where it is going.They don't want the irrelevant parts-details of how standard equipment works,for instance.Find out as much as you can about content and format from your supervisor and other students,and look at some recent(successful)theses to get a feel for the product this market expects. A paper is read by one or more skilled referees,and,if accepted,by a scientifically- informed audience.This manual focuses on writing papers.The pages that follow explain how this market should be addressed. A research proposal usually addresses two markets.One is the funding agency:the EPSRC,the EU,another Government Agencies,or a Charity.They will look for a match between their priorities and yours.The other is the referees that the funding agency will use; they are charged with judging quality,promise and relevance. Hardest to write is a popular article,addressing an audience who is intelligent-one should always assume that-but who may know nothing of your subject.Here style,always important,must be fine-tuned to meet their needs.More on style in Section 8. Make no mistake.Write poorly and you'll bore,exasperate and ultimately lose your readers.Write well,and they'll respond in the way you plan. Table 1:Markets for technical writing What writing？ Who are the readers？ How will they use it？ Thesis Examiners To judge and rank your work Paper Referees To check originality.quality,suitability Scientifically-literate public To extract information To judge if your aims match the priorities of the Research proposal The funding body and... funding body Its referees To judge quality and promise of the work Popular article Intelligent but un-informed To be introduced to a new field public To be entertained How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 4 MFA, 16/08/11 2 THE MARKET –Who are your readers? Your market is your readers. Put yourself in their shoes: what, if you were they, would you wish to find? The readers of your thesis are your examiners. They expect details of all relevant parts of your research: why you did it, its background, your thinking, what you did, your conclusions and your views on where it is going. They don’t want the irrelevant parts – details of how standard equipment works, for instance. Find out as much as you can about content and format from your supervisor and other students, and look at some recent (successful) theses to get a feel for the product this market expects. A paper is read by one or more skilled referees, and, if accepted, by a scientificallyinformed audience. This manual focuses on writing papers. The pages that follow explain how this market should be addressed. A research proposal usually addresses two markets. One is the funding agency: the EPSRC, the EU, another Government Agencies, or a Charity. They will look for a match between their priorities and yours. The other is the referees that the funding agency will use; they are charged with judging quality, promise and relevance. Hardest to write is a popular article, addressing an audience who is intelligent – one should always assume that – but who may know nothing of your subject. Here style, always important, must be fine-tuned to meet their needs. More on style in Section 8. Make no mistake. Write poorly and you’ll bore, exasperate and ultimately lose your readers. Write well, and they’ll respond in the way you plan. Table 1: Markets for technical writing What writing ? Who are the readers ? How will they use it ? Thesis Examiners To judge and rank your work Paper Referees Scientifically-literate public To check originality, quality, suitability To extract information Research proposal The funding body and … Its referees To judge if your aims match the priorities of the funding body To judge quality and promise of the work Popular article Intelligent but un-informed public To be introduced to a new field To be entertained
3 CONCEPT--Making a Concept-Sheet When you can't write,it is because you don't know what you want to say.The first job is to structure your thinking.Settle down comfortably with a cup of coffee (or better,beer)and an A3 sheet of paper in Landscape orientation as in Figure 2.Devise a tentative title for the paper and write it at the top.Then-in as orderly way as you can,but disorder is OK too--jot down what seem like sensible section headings,each in its own box.Sketch in anything that occurs to you that belongs in a section-paragraph headings,figures,ideas.Think of things that might be relevant to the section-a reference,a graph you might need,an idea that requires further development.Put each in a bubble near the box to which it applies,with an arrow showing where it fits in.This is the time to de-focus,forget the detail and think both longitudinally and laterally.What should be in the paper?What else might be relevant?What else might you need to do the job-a copy of X,a figure of Y,the reference Z?Put it all down. You realise that you need an extra section-squeeze it in.You see that the order of sections is not good-add arrows indicating the new order. All this sounds like a child's game,but it is not.Its value lies in the freedom of thought it permits.Your first real act of composition (this one)is to allow your thinking to range over the entire paper,exploring ways in which the pieces might fit together,recording the resources you will need and capturing ideas.That way,no matter which part you start drafting,you have an idea of the whole.Don't yet think of style,neatness or anything else.Just add,at the appropriate place on the sheet,your thoughts.This can be the most satisfying step of writing a paper.Later steps can take time,be hard work,sometimes like squeezing water out of stone. But not this-it is the moment to be creative in whatever way your ideas may lead.You can add to the sheet at any time It becomes a road-map of where you are going. Figure 3 shows,unexpurgated,the concept sheet I made while thinking about this manual.Some bits were already planned;most developed in the hour I spent making the sheet; a few were added later,after some sections had been drafted.It is a mess,notes to oneself,but it guides the subsequent,more tedious,part of the journey.It is possible that this starting point may not work for you,but try it more than once before you abandon it.It is the best way I know to break writers-block and launch the real writing of the paper. How to write a paper J MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 5 MFA, 16/08/11 3 CONCEPT -- Making a Concept-Sheet When you can’t write, it is because you don’t know what you want to say. The first job is to structure your thinking. Settle down comfortably with a cup of coffee (or better, beer) and an A3 sheet of paper in Landscape orientation as in Figure 2. Devise a tentative title for the paper and write it at the top. Then – in as orderly way as you can, but disorder is OK too -- jot down what seem like sensible section headings, each in its own box. Sketch in anything that occurs to you that belongs in a section – paragraph headings, figures, ideas. Think of things that might be relevant to the section – a reference, a graph you might need, an idea that requires further development. Put each in a bubble near the box to which it applies, with an arrow showing where it fits in. This is the time to de-focus, forget the detail and think both longitudinally and laterally. What should be in the paper? What else might be relevant? What else might you need to do the job – a copy of X, a figure of Y, the reference Z? Put it all down. You realise that you need an extra section - squeeze it in. You see that the order of sections is not good – add arrows indicating the new order. All this sounds like a child’s game, but it is not. Its value lies in the freedom of thought it permits. Your first real act of composition (this one) is to allow your thinking to range over the entire paper, exploring ways in which the pieces might fit together, recording the resources you will need and capturing ideas. That way, no matter which part you start drafting, you have an idea of the whole. Don’t yet think of style, neatness or anything else. Just add, at the appropriate place on the sheet, your thoughts. This can be the most satisfying step of writing a paper. Later steps can take time, be hard work, sometimes like squeezing water out of stone. But not this – it is the moment to be creative in whatever way your ideas may lead. You can add to the sheet at any time It becomes a road-map of where you are going. Figure 3 shows, unexpurgated, the concept sheet I made while thinking about this manual. Some bits were already planned; most developed in the hour I spent making the sheet; a few were added later, after some sections had been drafted. It is a mess, notes to oneself, but it guides the subsequent, more tedious, part of the journey. It is possible that this starting point may not work for you, but try it more than once before you abandon it. It is the best way I know to break writers-block and launch the real writing of the paper