☑ CHAPTER Designing and Assessing 21st Century Learning Knowledge Outcomes This chapter addresses ISTE NETS-T standards 2,4,and 5. Describe the similarities and differences in learning theories. List the eight principles of effective instruction for 21st century learners. Describe the similarities and differences in the principles of effective technology and media utilization. Describe the similarities and differences between the types of effective learning assessment. Goal Understand how to design and assess 21st century learning
Designing and Assessing 21st Century Learning Chapter 2 Knowledge Outcomes Goal Understand how to design and assess 21st century learning. This chapter addresses ISTE NETS-T standards 2, 4, and 5. 1 Describe the similarities and differences in learning theories. 2 List the eight principles of effective instruction for 21st century learners. 3 Describe the similarities and differences in the principles of effective technology and media utilization. 4 Describe the similarities and differences between the types of effective learning assessment. M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 20 2/7/14 8:37 AM
earning is the development of new knowledge,skills.or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment.Learning doesn't happen by magic Rather.teachers must make important decisions to en leaming especially when integrating technology and media nto eaing theories,th ction that integ principles of nd valuable s to inte grate intoth ledge Skills,n The resource available t are learing today needs sto prepare ther n tomorrow,and lifelong learning is a students today offer then stone to guiding stu dents toward under ow to e shifting knowledge of th By creating sear avenues for addre v and what to learn nterfaces for learners as they move forward in their education Even as students are entering the classroom with greater understanding of worldwide issues,other learning challenges prevail.Many come into school speaking more than one lan- guage,and it is predicted that by 2025,nearly half of all classrooms will have students who do not speak English as their first language (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,n.d.).Students also have greater fluency with technology and media and have greater opportunities for exposure to different points of view and cultures.Even before today's children enter school,many have experience with technology as a learning tool through television programs designed to instruct young children.Many also understand how computers can be used for learning and for com- municating.Another medium for communication and interactivity,the cell phone,has become the great equalizer for all students regardless of their social and ethnic backgrounds.How teachers view the role of technology and media in the classroom depends very much on their beliefs about how people learn. Learning Theories Even at an earl Ovet the past haif cen has iplications for instruction in opportunities. or the us dia in particular riefly survey each othemaiorpe ctives on learning and discuss the implications.Drisco (20 discusses learn ing theories and their impact on teaching decisions in greater detail. BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE In the 1950s,B.F.Skinner,a psychologist at Harvard University and a proponent of behaviorism,conducted scientific studies of observable behavior.He was interested in voluntary behav- ior.such as learning new skills.rather than reflexive behavion as illustrated by Pavlov's famous salivating dog.He demon- strated that reinforcing,or rewarding desired responses,could Designing and Assessing 21st Century Leaming 21
Designing and Assessing 21st Century Learning 21 L earning is the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment. Learning doesn’t happen by magic. Rather, teachers must make important decisions to ensure learning, especially when integrating technology and media into a lesson. Foundational learning theories, the principles of effective instruction that integrate technology and media, and effective assessment of learning are all elements of designing and assessing 21st centruy learning. Technology and media can be valuable resources to integrate into the assessment of learning. Learners in the 21st century need to be better educated to assume the challenges of continually evolving knowledge and skill requirements for the future (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, n.d.). What students are learning today needs to prepare them for an uncertain tomorrow, and lifelong learning is a cornerstone to guiding students toward understanding how to approach the shifting knowledge and skills of their future. By creating seamless access to the global community and opening new avenues for addressing how and what to learn, technology and media have become essential interfaces for learners as they move forward in their education. Even as students are entering the classroom with greater understanding of worldwide issues, other learning challenges prevail. Many come into school speaking more than one language, and it is predicted that by 2025, nearly half of all classrooms will have students who do not speak English as their first language (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, n.d.). Students also have greater fluency with technology and media and have greater opportunities for exposure to different points of view and cultures. Even before today’s children enter school, many have experience with technology as a learning tool through television programs designed to instruct young children. Many also understand how computers can be used for learning and for communicating. Another medium for communication and interactivity, the cell phone, has become the great equalizer for all students regardless of their social and ethnic backgrounds. How teachers view the role of technology and media in the classroom depends very much on their beliefs about how people learn. Learning Theories Over the past half-century there have been several dominant theories of learning. Each has implications for instruction in general and for the use of technology and media in particular. We briefly survey each of the major perspectives on learning and discuss their implications. Driscoll (2005) discusses learning theories and their impact on teaching decisions in greater detail. Behaviorist Perspective In the 1950s, B. F. Skinner, a psychologist at Harvard University and a proponent of behaviorism, conducted scientific studies of observable behavior. He was interested in voluntary behavior, such as learning new skills, rather than reflexive behavior, as illustrated by Pavlov’s famous salivating dog. He demonstrated that reinforcing, or rewarding desired responses, could The resources available to students today offer them many opportunities for learning. Even at an early age, children learn to use technology to expand their learning opportunities. M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 21 2/7/14 8:37 AM
hape the behavior patters of an organism.Skinner based his rning theory, n as rel nforcement theory,on a serie t experiments wit the were given a re sired bet cet,the tended to stop a particular behavor.Skinner reasoned that the ame procedures could be used with humans.The result was the foundation for computer-assisted instruction.Unlike ear er learning research,Skinner's work was logical and precise eading directly to improved instruction and learning. Behaviorists refuse to speculate on what goes on inter nally when learning takes place.They rely solely on observable behaviors.As a result,they are more comfortable explain- ing relatively simple learning tasks.Because of this posture working alone behaviorism has limited applications in teaching higher-level skills.For example,behavior- ists are reluctant to make inferences about how learners process information.Although most would argue that,in the 21st century,behavioral concepts are not necessarily applicable to the types of learners you are encountering in your classrooms,you may determine that some basic knowledge or skills require a behaviorist approach to instruction.For example,you might have a student who would benefit from completing a math prooram that guides him through a series of incremental steps to learning multiplication,with reinforcements integrated throughout.until he has mastered the multiplication table.The student will not be finished with the program until his work is considered to be acceptable and he can demonstrate his ability to complete multiplication facts. COGNITIVIST PERSPECTIVE In the latter half of the twentieth century,cognitivists made new contributions to learning theory by creating models of how learners receive,process,and manipulate information.Cognitivism based on the work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget(1977),explores the mental proce esses indi. viduals use in responding to their environment-that is,how people think,solve problems,and make decisions.For example,behaviorists simply state that practice strengthens the response to a stimulus.Cognitivists,on the other hand,create a mental model of short-term and long-term mory,where it is rehearsed until ready ored in long-tern the is not rehearsed,it fades from shor-ter isngcm mod tonoreplertasks ing than that held by behavic ists.Studente hand of the tea and l in using available le ning re M y would t that th tudents are tes ed,an eta ing ab earning CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE Constructivism isa movement that extends beyond the ideas of cognitivism,considering the ont of stude of h structivists asize that le n in world of inf tion.They that s ate the lea nd th al of in students can interpret information for their own understanding.The role of constructivis 22 Chapter 2
22 Chapter 2 shape the behavior patterns of an organism. Skinner based his learning theory, known as reinforcement theory, on a series of experiments with pigeons. He noted that when the pigeons were given a reward for a desired behavior, they tended to repeat it. When the pigeons did not receive any reinforcer, they tended to stop a particular behavor. Skinner reasoned that the same procedures could be used with humans. The result was the foundation for computer- assisted instruction. Unlike earlier learning research, Skinner’s work was logical and precise, leading directly to improved instruction and learning. Behaviorists refuse to speculate on what goes on internally when learning takes place. They rely solely on observable behaviors. As a result, they are more comfortable explaining relatively simple learning tasks. Because of this posture, behaviorism has limited applications in teaching higher- level skills. For example, behaviorists are reluctant to make inferences about how learners process information. Although most would argue that, in the 21st century, behavioral concepts are not necessarily applicable to the types of learners you are encountering in your classrooms, you may determine that some basic knowledge or skills require a behaviorist approach to instruction. For example, you might have a student who would benefit from completing a math program that guides him through a series of incremental steps to learning multiplication, with reinforcements integrated throughout, until he has mastered the multiplication table. The student will not be finished with the program until his work is considered to be acceptable and he can demonstrate his ability to complete multiplication facts. Cognitivist Perspective In the latter half of the twentieth century, cognitivists made new contributions to learning theory by creating models of how learners receive, process, and manipulate information. Cognitivism, based on the work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1977), explores the mental processes individuals use in responding to their environment—that is, how people think, solve problems, and make decisions. For example, behaviorists simply state that practice strengthens the response to a stimulus. Cognitivists, on the other hand, create a mental model of short-term and long-term memory. New information is stored in short- term memory, where it is rehearsed until ready to be stored in long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed, it fades from short-term memory. Learners then combine the information and skills in long- term memory to develop cognitive strategies, or skills for dealing with complex tasks. Cognitivists have a broader perception of learning than that held by behaviorists. Students are less dependent on the guiding hand of the teacher and rely more on their own cognitive strategies in using available learning resources. Many would suggest that the cognitivist approach to instruction is a good compromise between required benchmarks, those standards against which students are tested, and metacognition, thinking about one’s own learning. Constructivist Perspective Constructivism is a movement that extends beyond the ideas of cognitivism, considering the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of experiential learning. Shifting from passive transfer of information to active problem solving and discovery, constructivists emphasize that learners create their own interpretations of the world of information. They argue that students situate the learning experience within their own experiences and that the goal of instruction is not to teach information but to create conditions in which students can interpret information for their own understanding. The role of constructivist Learning is sometimes done best by the individual student working alone. M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 22 2/7/14 8:37 AM
instruction is to provide students with ways to assemble knowledge rather than to dispense facts.Constructivists believe that learning occurs most effectively when student are engaged in authentic tasks that relate to meaningful con exts (ie..learning by doing).The ultimate measure of learr use knowledg facilitate thinking in real life this vith the eeds of 21st ce ers who ontheir existing but also to seek additional info ing effective soluti SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Social psychology is another well-established approach to the study of instruction and lear- 1st ce ury le ing.Social psychologists look at how the social organization of the classroom affects learning. For example,what is the group structure of the classroom-independent study,small groups, or the class as a whole?What is the authority structure-how much control do students have over their activities?What is the reward structure-is cooperation rather than competition fostered？ Researchers such as Robert Slavin(1990)have taken the position that cooperative leam- ing is both more effective and more socially beneficial than competitive and individualistic learning.Slavin developed a set of cooperative learning techniques embodying the principles of small-group collaboration,learner-controlled instruction,and rewards based on group achievement The 21st century learner enters your classroom with many skills developed from technology based social networking.The ideas fostered in the social psychology perspective address such interdependent collaborative abilities that 21st century learners need to use as part of their learning Teachers need to develon an eclectic attitude toward the various schools of learning psy chology.You are not obliged to swear allegiance to a particular learning theory.You want to use works.If you find that a particular learning situation is suited to a behaviorist approach then you should use behaviorist techniques.C tivist or ructivist stra gie u should use Whe rs in your clas ing theo ask at hand. app articular type Together,a group of students aborate on thei Principles of Effective Instruction for 21st Century Learners As a classroom teacher,your role is to establish learning expe riences that foster the defined learner outcomes.At times those outcomes may be based on specific state or national learning standards;at other times they may be based on negotiated out- comes with individual leamers.Whichever direction you take, you need to think about how to engage students in the learning process. As an educator seeking ways to improve your practice,it is important to consider how to engage learners in their learning Designing and Assessing 21st Century Leaming
Designing and Assessing 21st Century Learning 23 instruction is to provide students with ways to assemble knowledge rather than to dispense facts. Constructivists believe that learning occurs most effectively when students are engaged in authentic tasks that relate to meaningful contexts (i.e., learning by doing). The ultimate measure of learning is therefore the ability of the student to use knowledge to facilitate thinking in real life. This approach fits with the needs of 21st century learners who must solve problems that not only capitalize on their existing knowledge, but also require them to seek additional information or skills in finding effective solutions. Social-Psychological Perspective Social psychology is another well-established approach to the study of instruction and learning. Social psychologists look at how the social organization of the classroom affects learning. For example, what is the group structure of the classroom—independent study, small groups, or the class as a whole? What is the authority structure—how much control do students have over their activities? What is the reward structure— is cooperation rather than competition fostered? Researchers such as Robert Slavin (1990) have taken the position that cooperative learning is both more effective and more socially beneficial than competitive and individualistic learning. Slavin developed a set of cooperative learning techniques embodying the principles of small- group collaboration, learner- controlled instruction, and rewards based on group achievement. The 21st century learner enters your classroom with many skills developed from technologybased social networking. The ideas fostered in the social psychology perspective address such interdependent collaborative abilities that 21st century learners need to use as part of their learning. Teachers need to develop an eclectic attitude toward the various schools of learning psychology. You are not obliged to swear allegiance to a particular learning theory. You want to use what works. If you find that a particular learning situation is suited to a behaviorist approach, then you should use behaviorist techniques. Conversely, if the situation seems to call for cognitivist or constructivist strategies, those are what you should use. When guiding the 21st century learners in your classroom, consider which learning theory best applies to the particular type of learning task at hand. Principles of Effective Instruction for 21st Century Learners As a classroom teacher, your role is to establish learning experiences that foster the defined learner outcomes. At times those outcomes may be based on specific state or national learning standards; at other times they may be based on negotiated outcomes with individual learners. Whichever direction you take, you need to think about how to engage students in the learning process. As an educator seeking ways to improve your practice, it is important to consider how to engage learners in their learning. Teachers can help guide the 21st century learner explore new information. Together, a group of students can collaborate on their learning. M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 23 2/7/14 8:37 AM
Because one omn acro ss all class ro om se ed at tion to ensure that all ers are arning.F you ma nateria stude ho are reading above grad or ext and worksh with hints and answer keys for those who are struggling to understand the concepts of the topic Research-based classroom practices to engage learners have evolved over time.These prin ciples of effective instruction offer ways to engage your leamners regardless of their ability levels: .Assess prior knowledge.Before you can properly provide instruction,you should gathe relevant information about each student's knowledge and skill level.You need to know what knowledge your students already have learned.To leam from most materials and activi ties,students must possess prerequisite knowledge and skills(Newby,Stepich,Lehman, Russell,2010). Consider individual differences leamners vary in terms of personality.g eneral aptitude knowledge of a subject,and m ors Be a are of the hild's You need to de the t age spoken By a aewid hat resources are nelp your den ec 15 ruction allo different activities(Cooper&Varma,1997) State objectives.For you and your students to know where instruction is going and what is to be accomplished,the goals must be specified.Learning objectives must match expected outcomes or standards (Mager.1997) Develop meta ognitive skills.The skills of selective onitoring,e valuating,and adjust ing their approac elp to ma e them lifelong learners nce in understan resources help in tha process(Nelson,1992 Provide social interaction.Teachers and peers serving as tutors or gr un members can pro vide a number of pedagogical as well as social su orts lea expertise when collaborating with others in and bey nd the classroom (Jonas n,Howland, Marra,&Crismond,2008). Incorporate realistic contexts.Learners are most likely to remember and to apply authenti knowledge presented in a real-world context.Rote learning leads to"inert knowledge";that is,learners know something but cannot apply it to real life.Students benefit from under standing how their knowledge and skills fit into the world around them(Bransford,Brown. Cocking,2000). students in relevar nces are those s to d the pa cipa of lea Dc espe arying bility to apply L:W Practice pro Offer frequent,timely,and constructive feedback.Student learning requires accurate infor mation on misconceptions.misunderstandings and weaknesses.Learners need to know it their thinking is on track Feedback may come from a teacher a tutor electronic messages from a computer the scoring system of a pame.or oneself In addition to knowing that responses are incorrect,students need to know why they have been unsuccessful and how they can improve their performance.Further,knowing details about their correct responses in terms of how and why they are accurate helps students understand more about what they have learned (Black william.1998) 24 Chapter 2
24 Chapter 2 Because one common feature across all classroom settings is the variety of learning levels and needs among students, it is also critical to determine the best ways to meet the needs of all students by becoming skilled at differentiating instruction to ensure that all learners are adequately and appropriately challenged in their learning. For example, you may offer in-depth reading materials for students who are reading above grade level for extended learning experiences, and worksheets with hints and answer keys for those who are struggling to understand the concepts of the topic. Research-based classroom practices to engage learners have evolved over time. These principles of effective instruction offer ways to engage your learners regardless of their ability levels: • Assess prior knowledge. Before you can properly provide instruction, you should gather relevant information about each student’s knowledge and skill level. You need to know what knowledge your students already have learned. To learn from most materials and activities, students must possess prerequisite knowledge and skills (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2010). • Consider individual differences. Learners vary in terms of personality, general aptitude, knowledge of a subject, and many other factors. Be aware of the multiple learning needs of your students—for example, whether a language other than English is spoken in a child’s home. You need to consider the technology and media experiences your students have had and what resources are essential to help your students learn. Effective instruction allows individuals to progress at different rates, cover different materials, and even participate in different activities (Cooper & Varma, 1997). • State objectives. For you and your students to know where instruction is going and what is to be accomplished, the goals must be specified. Learning objectives must match expected outcomes or standards (Mager, 1997). • Develop metacognitive skills. The skills of selective monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting their approaches enhance students’ learning and help to make them lifelong learners. Learners need assistance in understanding how they learn and what resources help in that process (Nelson, 1992). • Provide social interaction. Teachers and peers serving as tutors or group members can provide a number of pedagogical as well as social supports. Learners gain experience and expertise when collaborating with others in and beyond the classroom (Jonassen, Howland, Marra, & Crismond, 2008). • Incorporate realistic contexts. Learners are most likely to remember and to apply authentic knowledge presented in a real-world context. Rote learning leads to “inert knowledge”; that is, learners know something but cannot apply it to real life. Students benefit from understanding how their knowledge and skills fit into the world around them (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). • Engage students in relevant practice. The most effective learning experiences are those requiring learners to practice skills that build toward the desired outcome. Learner participation increases the probability of learning. Practice, especially in varying contexts, improves retention rate and the ability to apply the new knowledge, skill, or attitude. Practice promotes deeper, longer lasting learning (Morrison & Lowther, 2010). • Offer frequent, timely, and constructive feedback. Student learning requires accurate information on misconceptions, misunderstandings, and weaknesses. Learners need to know if their thinking is on track. Feedback may come from a teacher, a tutor, electronic messages from a computer, the scoring system of a game, or oneself. In addition to knowing that responses are incorrect, students need to know why they have been unsuccessful and how they can improve their performance. Further, knowing details about their correct responses in terms of how and why they are accurate helps students understand more about what they have learned (Black & William, 1998). M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 24 2/7/14 8:37 AM