INFORMATION VERSUS INSTRUCTION cators,it is important todistinguish be information and instruction.Information is Information can be presented in a memo,in .Often the presentation,whether it or on the Internet,is general in content and its purpose is to give an overview of ideas or subject matter-to generate interest,to provide background information,or to give procedural details. Learners should not be expected to be responsible for the retention or use of information they have only seen or heard.The information provided by a job aid (a short guide to help the user),like a phone book,is not meant to be memorized.It is assumed that you will look up the information when needed.With computers,it has become possible to give ever more rapid and detailed information in specific situations,to the point that the computer could be said to be helping or"coaching"the individual.Although with frequent use of a job aid or a computer help system a person might gradually internalize information,remembering more and more of the information provided,the learning is not an intentional part of the system,whose aim is only to provide just-in-time assistance or specific information. Instruction,on the other hand,refers to any intentional effort to stimulate learning by the deliberate arrangement of experiences to help learners achieve a desirable change in capability Instruction is meant to lead to learning.Active engagement with the information questioning is the critical component of instruction ehon8tcpri8tepaicpoioaioieciomoaaesncog oractice with feedback Instruction therefore e,has as its goal a lasting change in the capability of the learner.This is a crucial point in distinguishing instruction from just providing information. nstruction is also the ngement of information and the envi nt to facilitate learn not only where instruction takes place.but also the strate logy.and media needed to co mation and guide learning.The lear uctor mav do this.Gagne (1985) cti as a set of ents external to the s of learn Preparing the ins ctional environme nt is rk within lea eating lea tunities need to he elp t ing comm B using ati e lens,you ning wikis, nagement systems,y u can your t century learners move through the vels of leaming appropriate to thei goals,the state learning standards,and expected outcomes BLOOM'S DIGITAL TAXONOMY AND 21ST CENTURY 4 CS BenpaminB deveopdinhaths a ring skills vledge th tion (Bl m d simp d th at students star wledge stage by re om memory).Students then progr to the compren sion stage,i (e.g.,using your own words ing,then they were ready for the next step,application.At the application step,stud use the ideas or information in a meaningful way (e.g.,using the author's ideas in her poem relate those ideas to a similar topic).Finally,Bloom felt that when the student had progressed through these prior steps,it was now time to generate a new idea or example (e.g.,using a similar poetry style,write your own poem about a similar topic).He called this highest step evaluation. Over time,Bloom's Taxonomy has been revised and modified.While best known for his original work in the cognitive domain,Bloom added the psychomotor(manipulative or physi- cal skills)and affective (attitudes or feelings)domains,which followed a similar pattem in a Designing and Assessing 21st Century Leaming 25
Designing and Assessing 21st Century Learning 25 Information Versus Instruction As educators, it is important to distinguish between information and instruction. Information is knowledge, facts, news, comments, and content. Information can be presented in a memo, in the classroom, in a textbook, or on the Web. Often the presentation, whether it is live, printed, or on the Internet, is general in content and its purpose is to give an overview of ideas or subject matter—to generate interest, to provide background information, or to give procedural details. Learners should not be expected to be responsible for the retention or use of information they have only seen or heard. The information provided by a job aid (a short guide to help the user), like a phone book, is not meant to be memorized. It is assumed that you will look up the information when needed. With computers, it has become possible to give ever more rapid and detailed information in specific situations, to the point that the computer could be said to be helping or “coaching” the individual. Although with frequent use of a job aid or a computer help system a person might gradually internalize information, remembering more and more of the information provided, the learning is not an intentional part of the system, whose aim is only to provide just-in-time assistance or specific information. Instruction, on the other hand, refers to any intentional effort to stimulate learning by the deliberate arrangement of experiences to help learners achieve a desirable change in capability. Instruction is meant to lead to learning. Active engagement with the information—questioning it, discussing it, applying it to practice situations— is the critical component of instruction. Meaningful understanding, retention, and application require instructional activities, including practice with feedback. Instruction, therefore, has as its goal a lasting change in the capability of the learner. This is a crucial point in distinguishing instruction from just providing information. Instruction is also the arrangement of information and the environment to facilitate learning. By environment we mean not only where instruction takes place, but also the strategies, technology, and media needed to convey information and guide learning. The learner or the instructor may do this. Gagné (1985) describes instruction as a set of events external to the learner designed to support the internal process of learning. Preparing the instructional environment is another critical role for teachers. As a teacher responsible for creating learning opportunities for your students, you will need to help them work within learning communities. By using collaborative learning tools such as classroom blogs, wikis, social networking resources, and learning management systems, you can help your 21st century learners move through the various levels of learning appropriate to their goals, the state learning standards, and expected outcomes. Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy and 21st Century 4 Cs Benjamin Bloom developed a learning taxonomy that he described as stages focused on cognitive learning skills ranging from knowledge through evaluation (Bloom and Krathwohl, 1984). His idea was that students progressed in an orderly fashion from simple to complex mental abilities. He suggested that students started at the knowledge stage by recalling specific content (e.g., reciting a poem from memory). Students then progressed to the comprehension stage, in which they would be able to paraphrase or summarize the content (e.g., using your own words, describe what the author meant in her poem). He assumed if students could understand meaning, then they were ready for the next step, application. At the application step, students could use the ideas or information in a meaningful way (e.g., using the author’s ideas in her poem, relate those ideas to a similar topic). Finally, Bloom felt that when the student had progressed through these prior steps, it was now time to generate a new idea or example (e.g., using a similar poetry style, write your own poem about a similar topic). He called this highest step evaluation. Over time, Bloom’s Taxonomy has been revised and modified. While best known for his original work in the cognitive domain, Bloom added the psychomotor (manipulative or physical skills) and affective (attitudes or feelings) domains, which followed a similar pattern in a M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 25 2/7/14 8:37 AM
cognitiv orde nd higher-ord ch as applying the factsto a unique task. tha skils to be succesful at the higher- order,headvocated th stud nts were to be guided through the steps into higher-order thinking.For example,a teache would require students to learn multiplication tables,explain relatio nips betv the numb facts,use multiplication to solve a specific story problem,and finally to use their multiplica tion knowledge in a unique and different way,such as in an art project in which they discusse how they repeated certain design elements as a means to demonstrate their understanding ot multiplication concepts. The most recent modification to Bloom's original steps has been termed Bloom's Digita Taxonomy (Churches,2008).What is significantly different about the new taxonomy is that it is not focused on only cognitive skills,but rather integrates action and resources into the stages.In the Digital Taxonomy,the interplay of use of resources with the cognitive process is an essential element to understanding how students learn.The premise of moving through each stage is not emphasized,but rather the intent is to capitalize on where the student is and what approaches will best help the student to learn the information and use it in meaningful ways.Also criti- cal to the new taxonomy is a focus on collaboration and scaffolding of ideas.In the Digital Taxonomy,the teacher's role as a learning guide is emphasized,as is the idea that technology and media are essential tools to facilitate student learning now the teacher does not need to require prior knowledge of multiplication skills in order for students to gain that knowledge as they apply multiplication skills to a problems they generated as part of their explorations of a as for d several yea identified skills that every ocus is on those highe rder thinking skills that bloom and Churches identified as critical uality lear ing hip identified four skills as the ns by w hich cademic kn tical thinki and c these skill udents hav can loe the inf ion they rder to be cesful in the mpl m dge as part o of their active lea arning expe nts you w ork with group dge and understand FIGURE 2.1 21st Century Student Outcomes and Support ing to gain further Systems pro hey reso lem that has significant impact on a l Clos aligned to the four 21s century ski ls are cr opportunities to view their learning experiences in a global context.For the classroom teacher,these new views of Bloom's Taxonomy and the 21st century skills suggest new approaches of facilitat ing learning using media and technology outside the regular classroom to facilitate preparation of classroom activities.You Curriculum and instruction can guide your students to work on larger issues across a greater span and learn more from students outside the classroom Learning environments setting.The GlobalSchoolNet (www .globalschoolnet.org)offers teachers Source:Reprinted with permission of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills opportunities to collaborate,plan,and 26 Chapter2
26 Chapter 2 taxonomy. Bloom further expanded his cognitive taxonomy and divided it into lower- order thinking skills, such as requiring the ability to recall specific facts, and higher-order thinking skills, such as applying the facts to a unique task. His idea was that students needed the lowerorder skills in order to be successful at the higher-order skills. In addition, he advocated that all students were to be guided through the steps into higher-order thinking. For example, a teacher would require students to learn multiplication tables, explain relationships between the number facts, use multiplication to solve a specific story problem, and finally to use their multiplication knowledge in a unique and different way, such as in an art project in which they discussed how they repeated certain design elements as a means to demonstrate their understanding of multiplication concepts. The most recent modification to Bloom’s original steps has been termed Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy (Churches, 2008). What is significantly different about the new taxonomy is that it is not focused on only cognitive skills, but rather integrates action and resources into the stages. In the Digital Taxonomy, the interplay of use of resources with the cognitive process is an essential element to understanding how students learn. The premise of moving through each stage is not emphasized, but rather the intent is to capitalize on where the student is and what approaches will best help the student to learn the information and use it in meaningful ways. Also critical to the new taxonomy is a focus on collaboration and scaffolding of ideas. In the Digital Taxonomy, the teacher’s role as a learning guide is emphasized, as is the idea that technology and media are essential tools to facilitate student learning. Now the teacher does not need to require prior knowledge of multiplication skills in order for students to gain that knowledge as they apply multiplication skills to a problems they generated as part of their explorations of a local problem to be resolved. Fast forward several years, and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (www.p21.org) identified skills that every student needs to have to be a successful learner (Figure 2.1). The focus is on those higher-order thinking skills that Bloom and Churches identified as critical to quality learning experiences. The Partnership identified four skills as the means by which children can acquire their academic knowledge: critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. Each of these skills requires that students have knowledge or can locate the information they need in order to be successful in the implementation of the knowledge as part of their active learning experiences. As a teacher, you would work with groups of students who share their knowledge and understanding to gain further knowledge as they resolve a creative and unique problem that has significant impact on a local setting. Closely aligned to the four 21st century skills are cross- cultural understandings through which students have opportunities to view their learning experiences in a global context. For the classroom teacher, these new views of Bloom’s Taxonomy and the 21st century skills suggest new approaches of facilitating learning using media and technology outside the regular classroom to facilitate preparation of classroom activities. You can guide your students to work on larger issues across a greater span and learn more from students outside the classroom setting. The GlobalSchoolNet (www .globalschoolnet.org) offers teachers opportunities to collaborate, plan, and Life and Career skills Learning and Innovation skills – 4Cs Critical thinking • communication Collaboration • creativity Core subjects – 3Rs and 21st century themes Information Media, and Technology skills Standards and Assessments Curriculum and instruction Professional developments Learning environments Figure 2.1 21st Century Student Outcomes and Support Systems Source: Reprinted with permission of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills. M02_SMAL4150_01_SE_C02.indd 26 2/7/14 8:37 AM