A Note to theStudentTips on learning to gain understandingMost of you are probably taking this course as a prerequisite toThere are clearlymanywaysto go aboutassimilating informa-nursing,dental hygiene,medicine,pharmacy,optometry.physiciantion-but mainly.you need to become involved in reading,writing.assistant, or other health science programs. Because you are prepar-drawing simple diagrams, and discussion or study with others. Thising for professions that involve interactions with patients,you willmeans reading alone will not gather the most important points frombe concernedwith infection control and precautions,whichin turna chapter.You must attend lecture and laboratory sessions to listenrequires youto think about microbes andhowtomanage them.Thisto your instructors or teaching assistants explain the material.Notesmeans you must not only betaken during lecture can be re-written or outlined to organizeknowledgeable about the char-the main points.This beginsacteristics of bacteria, viruses,"The Talaro textbook not only givesa clearlythe processof laying downand other microbes, their phys-written,accurateverbal accountoftheworkingsmemory.You should go overiology, and primary niches inofthemicrobialworld,butalsoincorporatesconceptswith others—perhapsthe world, but you must alsoa tutor or study groupandhave a grasp of disease trans-detailed and colorful figures and tables to giveeven take on the role of themission,theinfectious process,the students a visual picture of the life ofteacher-presenter part of thedisinfection procedures, andtime. It is with these kind ofdrug treatments.You will needmicrobes and the illnesses ofmicrobiologyto understand howthe immuneinteractions that you will notIlovethistextbook."just rote memorize words butsystem interacts with microor-ganisms and the effects of im-understand the ideas and beDianeK.Vorbroker,Cincinnati State Technicalmunization. All of these areasable to apply them later.andCommunityCollegebringtheirownvocabularyandAwayto assessyourun-language-much of it new toderstanding and level of learn-you-and mastering it will require time, motivation, and prepara-ing is to test yourself. You may use the exam questions in the text,tion. A valid question students often ask is:How can I learn thisontheCONNECTwebsite,ormakeupyourown.LearnSmartinformation to increase my success in the course as well as retain itavailablewithin theCONNECT site,is an excellent waytomapforthefuture?your own,individualizedlearning program.It trackswhat youRight from the first, you need to be guided by how your in-know and what you don't know and creates questions just for youstructor has organized your course.Since there is moreinformationbased on your progress.than could be covered in one semester or quarter,yourinstructorAnother big factor in learning is the frequency of studying.Itwill select whathe/she wants to emphasize and construct a readingisfarmore effectiveto spend anhour orso eachdayfor two weeksand problemassignmentthat corresponds tolectures and discus-than a marathon cramming session on one weekend.If you ap-proach the subject in small bites and remain connected with thesion sessions. Many instructors have a detailed syllabus or studyguide thatdirects the class to specific content areas and vocabularyterminologyand topics,over time itwill becomeyoursand you willwords.Others may have their own websiteto distribute assign-find that the pieces begin to fit together. In the final analysis, thements and even sample exams. Whatever materials are provided,process of learning comes down to self-motivation and attitudethis should be your primaryguidein preparing to study.Thereisa big difference between forcingyourself to memorizeThe next consideration involves your own learning style andsomething to get by and really wanting to know and understand it.whatworks best foryou.To be successful,you must commit es-Therein is thekey to most success and achievement, no matter whatsential concepts and terminology to memory.A list of how we re-your final goals. And though it is true that mastering the subjecttaininformation called the"pyramid of learning"has been proposedmatter in this textbook requirestime and effort,millions of studentsbyEdgarDale:Werememberabout10%ofwhat weread;20%ofwillaffirmhowworthwhileithasbeenin their professions andwhat we hear; 50% of what we see and hear70% of what we dis-everydaylife.cuss with others; 80% of what we experience personally; and 95%ofwhatweteachtosomeoneelsexxii
xxii Contents Most of you are probably taking this course as a prerequisite to nursing, dental hygiene, medicine, pharmacy, optometry, physician assistant, or other health science programs. Because you are preparing for professions that involve interactions with patients, you will be concerned with infection control and precautions, which in turn requires you to think about microbes and how to manage them. This means you must not only be knowledgeable about the characteristics of bacteria, viruses, and other microbes, their physiology, and primary niches in the world, but you must also have a grasp of disease transmission, the infectious process, disinfection procedures, and drug treatments. You will need to understand how the immune system interacts with microorganisms and the effects of immunization. All of these areas bring their own vocabulary and language—much of it new to you—and mastering it will require time, motivation, and preparation. A valid question students often ask is: “How can I learn this information to increase my success in the course as well as retain it for the future?” Right from the first, you need to be guided by how your instructor has organized your course. Since there is more information than could be covered in one semester or quarter, your instructor will select what he/she wants to emphasize and construct a reading and problem assignment that corresponds to lectures and discussion sessions. Many instructors have a detailed syllabus or study guide that directs the class to specific content areas and vocabulary words. Others may have their own website to distribute assignments and even sample exams. Whatever materials are provided, this should be your primary guide in preparing to study. The next consideration involves your own learning style and what works best for you. To be successful, you must commit essential concepts and terminology to memory. A list of how we retain information called the “pyramid of learning” has been proposed by Edgar Dale: We remember about 10% of what we read; 20% of what we hear; 50% of what we see and hear; 70% of what we discuss with others; 80% of what we experience personally; and 95% of what we teach to someone else. A Note to the Student Tips on learning to gain understanding There are clearly many ways to go about assimilating information—but mainly, you need to become involved in reading, writing, drawing simple diagrams, and discussion or study with others. This means reading alone will not gather the most important points from a chapter. You must attend lecture and laboratory sessions to listen to your instructors or teaching assistants explain the material. Notes taken during lecture can be rewritten or outlined to organize the main points. This begins the process of laying down memory. You should go over concepts with others—perhaps a tutor or study group—and even take on the role of the teacher-presenter part of the time. It is with these kind of interactions that you will not just rote memorize words but understand the ideas and be able to apply them later. A way to assess your understanding and level of learning is to test yourself. You may use the exam questions in the text, on the CONNECT website, or make up your own. LearnSmart, available within the CONNECT site, is an excellent way to map your own, individualized learning program. It tracks what you know and what you don’t know and creates questions just for you based on your progress. Another big factor in learning is the frequency of studying. It is far more effective to spend an hour or so each day for two weeks than a marathon cramming session on one weekend. If you approach the subject in small bites and remain connected with the terminology and topics, over time it will become yours and you will find that the pieces begin to fit together. In the final analysis, the process of learning comes down to self-motivation and attitude. There is a big difference between forcing yourself to memorize something to get by and really wanting to know and understand it. Therein is the key to most success and achievement, no matter what your final goals. And though it is true that mastering the subject matter in this textbook requires time and effort, millions of students will affirm how worthwhile it has been in their professions and everyday life. “The Talaro textbook not only gives a clearlywritten, accurate verbal account of the workings of the microbial world, but also incorporates detailed and colorful fi gures and tables to give the students a visual picture of the life of microbes and the illnesses of microbiology. I love this textbook.” —Diane K. Vorbroker, Cincinnati State Technical and Community College xxii taL75292_fm_i-xxxii.indd Page xxii 12/10/10 11:05 AM user-f469 /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefiles /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefile
Contents5412.55MoleculesofLife:Carbohydrates中CHAPTERThe Nature of Carbohydrate Bonds43The Functions of Carbohydrates in Cells44TheMainThemes of Microbiology2.6 Molecules of Life: Lipids451.1TheScopeofMicrobiology2Membrane Lipids45General Characteristics of Microorganisms and Their1.2Miscellaneous Lipids45RolesintheEarth'sEnvironments22.7 Moleculesof Life:Proteins47The Origins of Microorganisms249Protein Structure and Diversity4The Cellular Organization of Microorganisms2.8 The Nucleic Acids: A Cell Computer and ItsMicrobial Dimensions: How Small Is Small?5Programs51Microbial Involvement in Energy and Nutrient Flow651The Double Helix of DNA1.3Human Useof Microorganisms852Making New DNA: Passing on the Genetic Message101.4 Microbial Roles inInfectiousDiseasesRNA: Organizers of Protein Synthesis521.5 The Historical Foundations of Microbiology11ATP: The Energy Molecule of Cells53The Development of the Microscope:12"Seeing Is Believing"14The Establishment of the Scientific MethodCHAPTER16The Development of Medical MicrobiologyTools of the Laboratory:Methods of StudyingThe Discovery of Spores and Sterilization16Microorganisms581.6Taxonomy:Organizing,Classifying,and NamingMicroorganisms183.1Methods of Microbial Investigation 59The Levels of Classification183.2TheMicroscope:Window on an Invisible Realm5919Assigning Specific NamesMagnification and Microscope Design611.7 The Origin and Evolution of Microorganisms20Variations on the Optical Microscope 64Systems for Presenting a Universal Tree of Life21Electron Microscopy 6769Preparing Specimens for Optical Microscopes23.3 Additional Features of the Six"I's"74CHAPTERInoculation:Growth and Identification of Cultures75TheChemistryof Biology27Isolation Techniques 75Identification Techniques76Atoms:Fundamental Building Blocks of AllMatter in2.128the Universe3.4 Media: Foundations of Culturing78Different Types of Atoms: Elements andTypes of Media79Their Properties2879Physical States of MediaThe Major Elements of Life and Their Primary80Chemical Contentof MediaCharacteristics 30Media to Suit Every Function81312.2Bonds and MoleculesCovalent Bonds: Molecules with Shared Electrons3244CHAPTERIonic Bonds: Electron Transfer among Atoms3335ElectronTransferandOxidation-ReductionReactionsASurveyof ProkaryoticCells and2.3Chemical Reactions, Solutions,and pH3689MicroorganismsFormulas,Models, and Equations36374.1 Basic Characteristicsof Cells and LifeForms90Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures of MoleculesWhat Is Life?90Acidity, Alkalinity, and the pH Scale3839912.4TheChemistryof CarbonandOrganicCompounds4.2ProkaryoticProfiles:TheBacteriaandArchaeaFunctional Groups of Organic Compounds41The Structure of a Generalized Bacterial Cell9141Cell Extensions and Surface Structures91OrganicMacromolecules:Superstructures of Lifexxili
xxiii CHAPTER 1 The Main Themes of Microbiology 1 1.1 The Scope of Microbiology 2 1.2 General Characteristics of Microorganisms and Their Roles in the Earth’s Environments 2 The Origins of Microorganisms 2 The Cellular Organization of Microorganisms 4 Microbial Dimensions: How Small Is Small? 5 Microbial Involvement in Energy and Nutrient Flow 6 1.3 Human Use of Microorganisms 8 1.4 Microbial Roles in Infectious Diseases 10 1.5 The Historical Foundations of Microbiology 11 The Development of the Microscope: “Seeing Is Believing” 12 The Establishment of the Scientifi c Method 14 The Development of Medical Microbiology 16 The Discovery of Spores and Sterilization 16 1.6 Taxonomy: Organizing, Classifying, and Naming Microorganisms 18 The Levels of Classifi cation 18 Assigning Specifi c Names 19 1.7 The Origin and Evolution of Microorganisms 20 Systems for Presenting a Universal Tree of Life 21 CHAPTER 2 The Chemistry of Biology 27 2.1 Atoms: Fundamental Building Blocks of All Matter in the Universe 28 Different Types of Atoms: Elements and Their Properties 28 The Major Elements of Life and Their Primary Characteristics 30 2.2 Bonds and Molecules 31 Covalent Bonds: Molecules with Shared Electrons 32 Ionic Bonds: Electron Transfer among Atoms 33 Electron Transfer and Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 35 2.3 Chemical Reactions, Solutions, and pH 36 Formulas, Models, and Equations 36 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures of Molecules 37 Acidity, Alkalinity, and the pH Scale 38 2.4 The Chemistry of Carbon and Organic Compounds 39 Functional Groups of Organic Compounds 41 Organic Macromolecules: Superstructures of Life 41 2.5 Molecules of Life: Carbohydrates 41 The Nature of Carbohydrate Bonds 43 The Functions of Carbohydrates in Cells 44 2.6 Molecules of Life: Lipids 45 Membrane Lipids 45 Miscellaneous Lipids 45 2.7 Molecules of Life: Proteins 47 Protein Structure and Diversity 49 2.8 The Nucleic Acids: A Cell Computer and Its Programs 51 The Double Helix of DNA 51 Making New DNA: Passing on the Genetic Message 52 RNA: Organizers of Protein Synthesis 52 ATP: The Energy Molecule of Cells 53 CHAPTER 3 Tools of the Laboratory: Methods of Studying Microorganisms 58 3.1 Methods of Microbial Investigation 59 3.2 The Microscope: Window on an Invisible Realm 59 Magnifi cation and Microscope Design 61 Variations on the Optical Microscope 64 Electron Microscopy 67 Preparing Specimens for Optical Microscopes 69 3.3 Additional Features of the Six “I’s” 74 Inoculation: Growth and Identifi cation of Cultures 75 Isolation Techniques 75 Identifi cation Techniques 76 3.4 Media: Foundations of Culturing 78 Types of Media 79 Physical States of Media 79 Chemical Content of Media 80 Media to Suit Every Function 81 CHAPTER 4 A Survey of Prokaryotic Cells and Microorganisms 89 4.1 Basic Characteristics of Cells and Life Forms 90 What Is Life? 90 4.2 Prokaryotic Profi les: The Bacteria and Archaea 91 The Structure of a Generalized Bacterial Cell 91 Cell Extensions and Surface Structures 91 Contents taL75292_fm_i-xxxii.indd Page xxiii 12/10/10 11:05 AM user-f469 /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefiles /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefile
xxivContents974.3The Cell Envelope:TheBoundary Layerof Bacteria5.7 Surveyof Protists:Protozoa146Basic Typed of Cell Envelopes97Protozoan Formand Function146Structure of Cell Walls98147ProtozoanIdentification and Cultivation101149Mycoplasmas and Other Cell-Wall-Deficient BacteriaImportant Protozoan Pathogens101Cell Membrane Structure5.8 ParasiticHelminths 1524.4 Bacterial Internal Structure102General Worm Morphology152Contents of the Cell Cytoplasm1021153Life Cycles and ReproductionBacterial Endospores:An ExtremelyResistant LifeForm 104154AHelminthCycle:ThePinworm154Helminth Classification and Identification4.5Bacterial Shapes,Arrangements,andSizes106154Distribution and Importance of Parasitic Worms4.6ClassificationSystemsof ProkaryoticDomains:Archaea110andBacteria110BacterialTaxonomyBasedonBergey'sManual6CHAPTER4.7Surveyof ProkaryoticGroupswithUnusual113CharacteristicsAn Introduction to Viruses158Free-Living Nonpathogenic Bacteria 1131596.1 Overviewof VirusesUnusual Forms of Medically Significant Bacteria117Early Searches for the Tiniest Microbes159118Archaea: The Other ProkaryotesThe Position of Viruses in the Biological Spectrum1596.2 The General Structureof Viruses160SCHAPTERSize Range161Viral Components: Capsids,Nucleic Acids,and Envelops162A Survey of EukaryoticCells and1676.3 HowVirusesAreClassifiedand Named123Microorganisms6.4 ModesofViral Multiplication1695.1The History of Eukaryotes124MultiplicationCyclesin AnimalViruses1695.2FormandFunction ofthe EukaryoticCell:External6.5TheMultiplicationCycleinBacteriophages174124StructuresLysogeny: The Silent Virus Infection 175Locomotor Appendages: Cilia and Flagella1266.6 Techniques in Cultivating and Identifying AnimalThe Glycocalyx127Viruses177Form and Function of the Eukaryotic Cell:BoundaryUsing Cell (Tissue) Culture Techniques177Structures 128Using Bird Embryos1785.3 Form and Function ofthe EukaryoticCell:Internal179Structures128Using Live Animal InoculationTheNucleus:TheControlCenter1286.7 Viral Infection,Detection,and Treatment179Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Passageway in the Cell1296.8Prions and OtherNonviral InfectiousParticles180Golgi Apparatus: APackaging Machine：129Mitochondria: Energy Generators of the Cell132PChloroplasts: Photosynthesis Machines133CHAPTERRibosomes:ProteinSynthesizers133MicrobialNutrition,Ecology,andGrowth185133The Cytoskeleton: A Support Network5.4 Eukaryotic-ProkaryoticComparisonsandTaxonomy7.1 MicrobialNutrition 186134of EukaryotesChemical Analysis of Cell Contents188134Overview of TaxonomyS188Forms,Sources, and Functions of Essential Nutrients5.5TheKingdomof theFungi135Classification of Nutritional Types188Fungal Nutrition1367.2 Transport: Movement of Substances across the CellOrganization of Microscopic Fungi138Membrane1931138Reproductive Strategies and Spore FormationDiffusion and Molecular Motion193Fungal Classification 141194TheDiffusionofWater:OsmosisFungal Identification and Cultivation143195AdaptationstoOsmoticVariationsintheEnvironment143Fungi in Medicine,Nature,and IndustryThe Movement of Solutes across Membranes1965.6SurveyofProtists:Algae：144196Active Transport: Bringing in Molecules against a Gradient145The Algae: Photosynthetic ProtistsEndocytosis: Eating and Drinking by Cells196
xxiv Contents 4.3 The Cell Envelope: The Boundary Layer of Bacteria 97 Basic Typed of Cell Envelopes 97 Structure of Cell Walls 98 Mycoplasmas and Other Cell-Wall-Defi cient Bacteria 101 Cell Membrane Structure 101 4.4 Bacterial Internal Structure 102 Contents of the Cell Cytoplasm 102 Bacterial Endospores: An Extremely Resistant Life Form 104 4.5 Bacterial Shapes, Arrangements, and Sizes 106 4.6 Classifi cation Systems of Prokaryotic Domains: Archaea and Bacteria 110 Bacterial Taxonomy Based on Bergey’s Manual 110 4.7 Survey of Prokaryotic Groups with Unusual Characteristics 113 Free-Living Nonpathogenic Bacteria 113 Unusual Forms of Medically Signifi cant Bacteria 117 Archaea: The Other Prokaryotes 118 CHAPTER 5 A Survey of Eukaryotic Cells and Microorganisms 123 5.1 The History of Eukaryotes 124 5.2 Form and Function of the Eukaryotic Cell: External Structures 124 Locomotor Appendages: Cilia and Flagella 126 The Glycocalyx 127 Form and Function of the Eukaryotic Cell: Boundary Structures 128 5.3 Form and Function of the Eukaryotic Cell: Internal Structures 128 The Nucleus: The Control Center 128 Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Passageway in the Cell 129 Golgi Apparatus: A Packaging Machine 129 Mitochondria: Energy Generators of the Cell 132 Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis Machines 133 Ribosomes: Protein Synthesizers 133 The Cytoskeleton: A Support Network 133 5.4 Eukaryotic-Prokaryotic Comparisons and Taxonomy of Eukaryotes 134 Overview of Taxonomy 134 5.5 The Kingdom of the Fungi 135 Fungal Nutrition 136 Organization of Microscopic Fungi 138 Reproductive Strategies and Spore Formation 138 Fungal Classifi cation 141 Fungal Identifi cation and Cultivation 143 Fungi in Medicine, Nature, and Industry 143 5.6 Survey of Protists: Algae 144 The Algae: Photosynthetic Protists 145 5.7 Survey of Protists: Protozoa 146 Protozoan Form and Function 146 Protozoan Identifi cation and Cultivation 147 Important Protozoan Pathogens 149 5.8 Parasitic Helminths 152 General Worm Morphology 152 Life Cycles and Reproduction 153 A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm 154 Helminth Classifi cation and Identifi cation 154 Distribution and Importance of Parasitic Worms 154 CHAPTER 6 An Introduction to Viruses 158 6.1 Overview of Viruses 159 Early Searches for the Tiniest Microbes 159 The Position of Viruses in the Biological Spectrum 159 6.2 The General Structure of Viruses 160 Size Range 161 Viral Components: Capsids, Nucleic Acids, and Envelopes 162 6.3 How Viruses Are Classifi ed and Named 167 6.4 Modes of Viral Multiplication 169 Multiplication Cycles in Animal Viruses 169 6.5 The Multiplication Cycle in Bacteriophages 174 Lysogeny: The Silent Virus Infection 175 6.6 Techniques in Cultivating and Identifying Animal Viruses 177 Using Cell (Tissue) Culture Techniques 177 Using Bird Embryos 178 Using Live Animal Inoculation 179 6.7 Viral Infection, Detection, and Treatment 179 6.8 Prions and Other Nonviral Infectious Particles 180 CHAPTER 7 Microbial Nutrition, Ecology, and Growth 185 7.1 Microbial Nutrition 186 Chemical Analysis of Cell Contents 188 Forms, Sources, and Functions of Essential Nutrients 188 Classifi cation of Nutritional Types 188 7.2 Transport: Movement of Substances across the Cell Membrane 193 Diffusion and Molecular Motion 193 The Diffusion of Water: Osmosis 194 Adaptations to Osmotic Variations in the Environment 195 The Movement of Solutes across Membranes 196 Active Transport: Bringing in Molecules against a Gradient 196 Endocytosis: Eating and Drinking by Cells 196 taL75292_fm_i-xxxii.indd Page xxiv 12/10/10 11:05 AM user-f469 /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefiles /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefile
ContentsXXV7.3Environmental FactorsThat InfluenceMicrobes198The Structure of DNA: A Double Helix with Its Own256Language199Adaptations to TemperatureDNA Replication:Preserving the Code and Passing It On259201Gas Requirements9.2 Applications of the DNA Code: Transcription and202Effects of pH263Translation203Osmotic Pressure263The Gene-Protein Connection203Miscellaneous Environmental FactorsThe Major Participants in Transcription and Translation2647.4 Ecological Associations among Microorganisms203265Transcription:TheFirstStageofGeneExpressionInterrelationships between Microbes and Humans 206Translation: The Second Stage of Gene Expression2677.5TheStudyof MicrobialGrowth207Eukaryotic Transcription and Translation: Similar yetThe Basis of Population Growth: Binary Fission207Different 270The Rate of Population Growth2079.3 GeneticRegulationofProteinSynthesisand209DeterminantsofPopulationGrowthMetabolism273211Other Methods of Analyzing Population GrowthThe Lactose Operon: A Model for Inducible Gene Regulation inBacteria2738ARepressibleOperon273CHAPTERNon-Operon Control Mechanisms274An Introduction to Microbial Metabolism:The9.4 Mutations:Changes intheGenetic Code276Chemical CrossroadsofLife217Causes of Mutations277Categories of Mutations2788.1TheMetabolismofMicrobes218Repair of Mutations278218Enzymes: Catalyzing the Chemical Reactions of LifeThe Ames Test279225Regulation of Enzymatic Activity and Metabolic PathwaysPositive and Negative Effects of Mutations2798.2The Pursuit and Utilization of Energy2279.5 DNARecombination Events 280Cell Energetics227Transmission of Genetic Material in Bacteria2808.3 Pathways of Bioenergetics 2319.6 The Genetics of Animal Viruses286Catabolism: An Overview of Nutrient Breakdown and Energy286Replication Strategies in Animal VirusesRelease:231Energy Strategies in Microorganisms23110Aerobic Respiration 233CHAPTER235PyruvicAcidACentralMetabolite235Genetic Engineering:A Revolution in MolecularThe Krebs Cycle-A Carbon and Energy WheelThe Respiratory Chain: Electron Transport and Oxidation291BiologyPhosphorylation 23710.1BasicElements andApplications ofGenetic240Summary of Aerobic Respiration292EngineeringAnaerobic Respiration 241Tools and Techniques of DNA Technology292241The Importance of Fermentation10.2 Recombinant DNATechnology:How to Imitate8.4 Biosynthesis and the Crossing Pathways of301NatureMetabolism244Technical Aspects of Recombinant DNAThe Frugality of the CellWaste Not, Want Not244and Gene Cloning 301Assembly of the Cell245Construction of a Recombinant, Insertion into a Cloning Host.8.5 Photosynthesis: The Earth's Lifeline247and Genetic Expression302Protein Products of Recombinant DNA Technology304Light-Dependent Reactions247Light-Independent Reactions:24810.3GeneticallyModifiedOrganisms305249Other Mechanisms of PhotosynthesisRecombinant Microbes: Modified Bacteria and Viruses306Recombination in Multicellular Organisms307010.4GeneticTreatments:IntroducingDNAintotheCHAPTERBody309Microbial Genetics254Gene Therapy309DNA Technology as Genetic Medicine3119.1Introduction to Genetics and Genes:Unlocking the10.5Genome Analysis: Fingerprints and GeneticSecrets of Heredity255Testing312The Nature of the Genetic Material255DNA Fingerprinting: A Unique Picture of a Genome312
Contents xxv 7.3 Environmental Factors That Infl uence Microbes 198 Adaptations to Temperature 199 Gas Requirements 201 Effects of pH 202 Osmotic Pressure 203 Miscellaneous Environmental Factors 203 7.4 Ecological Associations among Microorganisms 203 Interrelationships between Microbes and Humans 206 7.5 The Study of Microbial Growth 207 The Basis of Population Growth: Binary Fission 207 The Rate of Population Growth 207 Determinants of Population Growth 209 Other Methods of Analyzing Population Growth 211 CHAPTER 8 An Introduction to Microbial Metabolism: The Chemical Crossroads of Life 217 8.1 The Metabolism of Microbes 218 Enzymes: Catalyzing the Chemical Reactions of Life 218 Regulation of Enzymatic Activity and Metabolic Pathways 225 8.2 The Pursuit and Utilization of Energy 227 Cell Energetics 227 8.3 Pathways of Bioenergetics 231 Catabolism: An Overview of Nutrient Breakdown and Energy Release 231 Energy Strategies in Microorganisms 231 Aerobic Respiration 233 Pyruvic Acid—A Central Metabolite 235 The Krebs Cycle—A Carbon and Energy Wheel 235 The Respiratory Chain: Electron Transport and Oxidation Phosphorylation 237 Summary of Aerobic Respiration 240 Anaerobic Respiration 241 The Importance of Fermentation 241 8.4 Biosynthesis and the Crossing Pathways of Metabolism 244 The Frugality of the Cell—Waste Not, Want Not 244 Assembly of the Cell 245 8.5 Photosynthesis: The Earth’s Lifeline 247 Light-Dependent Reactions 247 Light-Independent Reactions 248 Other Mechanisms of Photosynthesis 249 CHAPTER 9 Microbial Genetics 254 9.1 Introduction to Genetics and Genes: Unlocking the Secrets of Heredity 255 The Nature of the Genetic Material 255 The Structure of DNA: A Double Helix with Its Own Language 256 DNA Replication: Preserving the Code and Passing It On 259 9.2 Applications of the DNA Code: Transcription and Translation 263 The Gene-Protein Connection 263 The Major Participants in Transcription and Translation 264 Transcription: The First Stage of Gene Expression 265 Translation: The Second Stage of Gene Expression 267 Eukaryotic Transcription and Translation: Similar yet Different 270 9.3 Genetic Regulation of Protein Synthesis and Metabolism 273 The Lactose Operon: A Model for Inducible Gene Regulation in Bacteria 273 A Repressible Operon 273 Non-Operon Control Mechanisms 274 9.4 Mutations: Changes in the Genetic Code 276 Causes of Mutations 277 Categories of Mutations 278 Repair of Mutations 278 The Ames Test 279 Positive and Negative Effects of Mutations 279 9.5 DNA Recombination Events 280 Transmission of Genetic Material in Bacteria 280 9.6 The Genetics of Animal Viruses 286 Replication Strategies in Animal Viruses 286 CHAPTER 10 Genetic Engineering: A Revolution in Molecular Biology 291 10.1 Basic Elements and Applications of Genetic Engineering 292 Tools and Techniques of DNA Technology 292 10.2 Recombinant DNA Technology: How to Imitate Nature 301 Technical Aspects of Recombinant DNA and Gene Cloning 301 Construction of a Recombinant, Insertion into a Cloning Host, and Genetic Expression 302 Protein Products of Recombinant DNA Technology 304 10.3 Genetically Modifi ed Organisms 305 Recombinant Microbes: Modifi ed Bacteria and Viruses 306 Recombination in Multicellular Organisms 307 10.4 Genetic Treatments: Introducing DNA into the Body 309 Gene Therapy 309 DNA Technology as Genetic Medicine 311 10.5 Genome Analysis: Fingerprints and Genetic Testing 312 DNA Fingerprinting: A Unique Picture of a Genome 312 taL75292_fm_i-xxxii.indd Page xxv 12/10/10 11:05 AM user-f469 /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefiles /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefile
xxviContents12.55InteractionsbetweenDrugsandHosts374CHAPTERToxicity to Organs374376Allergic Responses to DrugsPhysical and Chemical Agents for MicrobialSuppression and Alteration of the Microflora byControl319Antimicrobials37632011.1 Controlling Microorganisms5Considerations in Selecting an Antimicrobial Drug37712.6320General Considerations in Microbial ControlIdentifying the Agent377Relative Resistance of Microbial Forms320Testing for the Drug Susceptibility of Microorganisms377Terminology and Methods of Microbial Control322The MIC and the Therapeutic Index379What Is Microbial Death?323Patient Factors in Choosing an Antimicrobial Drug380How Antimicrobial Agents Work: Their ModesofAction32513CHAPTER11.2 Physical Methods of Control:Heat326327EffectsofTemperatureonMicrobialActivitiesMicrobe-HumanInteractions:Infection,The Effects of Cold and Desiccation329Disease,and Epidemiology38611.3Physical Methodsof Control:Radiation33113.1WeAreNotAlone 387331Radiation as a Microbial Control AgentContact,Colonization,Infection,Disease387Modes of Action of lonizing versus NonionizingResident Microbiota: The Human as a Habitat388Radiation 331Indigenous Microbiota of Specific Regions390Ionizing Radiation: Gamma Rays, X Rays, and CathodeRays332Colonizers of the Human Skin390Nonionizing Radiation:Ultraviolet Rays333Microbial Residents of the Gastrointestinal Tract391Inhabitants of the Respiratory Tract39211.4UsingFiltrationtoRemoveMicrobes334Microbiota of the Genitourinary Tract393Applications of Filtration Sterilization33413.2MajorFactorsintheDevelopmentofanInfection39411.5335Chemical Agents inMicrobial ControlBecoming Established:Phase OnePortals of Entry396Choosing a Microbicidal Chemical336399The Requirement for an Infectious DoseFactors That Affect the Germicidal ActivityAttachingto theHost:PhaseTwo399of Chemicals337Categories of Chemical Agents 338Invading the Host and Becoming Established: Phase Three39913.3TheOutcomes of Infection andDisease4042404The Stages of Clinical InfectionsCHAPTERPatterns of Infection 405Drugs,Microbes,Host-TheElementsofSigns and Symptoms: Warning Signals of Disease406The Portal of Exit: Vacating the Host 407351ChemotherapyThe Persistence of Microbes and Pathologic Conditions40812.1 Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy35213.4Origins and Transmission Patterns of Infectious5352The Origins of Antimicrobial Drugs408MicrobesInteractions between Drugs and Microbes354409Reservoirs: Where Pathogens Persist12.2 Surveyof MajorAntimicrobial Drug Groups359The Acquisition and Transmission of Infectious Agents411Antibacterial Drugs That Act on the Cell Wall359413Nosocomial Infections:The Hospital as a Sourceof Disease363Antibiotics That Damage Bacterial Cell MembranesUniversal Blood and BodyFluid Precautions414363Drugs That Act on DNA or RNA13.5415Epidemiology:The Study ofDisease in Populations363Drugs That Interfere with Protein SynthesisWho, When, and Where? Tracking Disease in theDrugs That Block Metabolic Pathways365Population 41512.3Drugs to Treat Fungal, Parasitic, and Viral366Infections14CHAPTERAntifungal Drugs366366Antiparasitic ChemotherapyAn Introduction to Host Defenses and Innate12.4InteractionsbetweenMicrobesandDrugs:Immunities424TheAcquisitionofDrugResistance370How Does Drug Resistance Develop?37114.1OverviewofHostDefenseMechanisms425Specific Mechanisms of Drug Resistance371Barriers at the Portal of Entry: An Inborn First Line of425DefenseNatural Selection and Drug Resistance373
xxvi Contents CHAPTER 11 Physical and Chemical Agents for Microbial Control 319 11.1 Controlling Microorganisms 320 General Considerations in Microbial Control 320 Relative Resistance of Microbial Forms 320 Terminology and Methods of Microbial Control 322 What Is Microbial Death? 323 How Antimicrobial Agents Work: Their Modes of Action 325 11.2 Physical Methods of Control: Heat 326 Effects of Temperature on Microbial Activities 327 The Effects of Cold and Desiccation 329 11.3 Physical Methods of Control: Radiation 331 Radiation as a Microbial Control Agent 331 Modes of Action of Ionizing versus Nonionizing Radiation 331 Ionizing Radiation: Gamma Rays, X Rays, and Cathode Rays 332 Nonionizing Radiation: Ultraviolet Rays 333 11.4 Using Filtration to Remove Microbes 334 Applications of Filtration Sterilization 334 11.5 Chemical Agents in Microbial Control 335 Choosing a Microbicidal Chemical 336 Factors That Affect the Germicidal Activity of Chemicals 337 Categories of Chemical Agents 338 CHAPTER 12 Drugs, Microbes, Host—The Elements of Chemotherapy 351 12.1 Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy 352 The Origins of Antimicrobial Drugs 352 Interactions between Drugs and Microbes 354 12.2 Survey of Major Antimicrobial Drug Groups 359 Antibacterial Drugs That Act on the Cell Wall 359 Antibiotics That Damage Bacterial Cell Membranes 363 Drugs That Act on DNA or RNA 363 Drugs That Interfere with Protein Synthesis 363 Drugs That Block Metabolic Pathways 365 12.3 Drugs to Treat Fungal, Parasitic, and Viral Infections 366 Antifungal Drugs 366 Antiparasitic Chemotherapy 366 12.4 Interactions between Microbes and Drugs: The Acquisition of Drug Resistance 370 How Does Drug Resistance Develop? 371 Specifi c Mechanisms of Drug Resistance 371 Natural Selection and Drug Resistance 373 12.5 Interactions between Drugs and Hosts 374 Toxicity to Organs 374 Allergic Responses to Drugs 376 Suppression and Alteration of the Microfl ora by Antimicrobials 376 12.6 Considerations in Selecting an Antimicrobial Drug 377 Identifying the Agent 377 Testing for the Drug Susceptibility of Microorganisms 377 The MIC and the Therapeutic Index 379 Patient Factors in Choosing an Antimicrobial Drug 380 CHAPTER 13 Microbe-Human Interactions: Infection, Disease, and Epidemiology 386 13.1 We Are Not Alone 387 Contact, Colonization, Infection, Disease 387 Resident Microbiota: The Human as a Habitat 388 Indigenous Microbiota of Specifi c Regions 390 Colonizers of the Human Skin 390 Microbial Residents of the Gastrointestinal Tract 391 Inhabitants of the Respiratory Tract 392 Microbiota of the Genitourinary Tract 393 13.2 Major Factors in the Development of an Infection 394 Becoming Established: Phase One—Portals of Entry 396 The Requirement for an Infectious Dose 399 Attaching to the Host: Phase Two 399 Invading the Host and Becoming Established: Phase Three 399 13.3 The Outcomes of Infection and Disease 404 The Stages of Clinical Infections 404 Patterns of Infection 405 Signs and Symptoms: Warning Signals of Disease 406 The Portal of Exit: Vacating the Host 407 The Persistence of Microbes and Pathologic Conditions 408 13.4 Origins and Transmission Patterns of Infectious Microbes 408 Reservoirs: Where Pathogens Persist 409 The Acquisition and Transmission of Infectious Agents 411 Nosocomial Infections: The Hospital as a Source of Disease 413 Universal Blood and Body Fluid Precautions 414 13.5 Epidemiology: The Study of Disease in Populations 415 Who, When, and Where? Tracking Disease in the Population 415 CHAPTER 14 An Introduction to Host Defenses and Innate Immunities 424 14.1 Overview of Host Defense Mechanisms 425 Barriers at the Portal of Entry: An Inborn First Line of Defense 425 taL75292_fm_i-xxxii.indd Page xxvi 12/10/10 11:05 AM user-f469 /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefiles /Volume/201/MHDQ245/taL75292_disk1of1/0073375292/taL75292_pagefile