CRIMINAL JUSTICE INFORMATION IN THE INFORMATION AGE: AN OVERVIEW Graeme Newman Introduction The post modern age of information technology promises to transform both the content, accessibility and utilisation of criminal justice information. In this rapidly changing age, the structure of traditional authority is being undermined and replaced by an alternative method of societal control. The most significant instigator and reflector of this change is the Internet The Internet provides heretofore unregulated and unlimited exchange of information among individuals and organisations via two levels of activity First, anonymous exchange of information via electronic bulletin boards and discussion lists, using E mail which has now come into its own. In criminal justice, the United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network-L (UNCJIN-L), an electronic bulletin board with over 700 members world wide, established by the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division, has pioneered this mode of information exchange Second, the Internet provides the dissemination and storage of large amounts of information in the form of databases or text, graphics, audio, and video now mainly on what is called the World Wide Web. The United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) pioneered the development of criminal justice databases on the Internet via the World wide Web in 1991. Since that time many criminal justice databases and so-called home pages have appeared in many different physical places throughout the world, linked electronically via the World Wide Web. a home page may contain simply links to other sites of related interest, links to large databases contained physically at that site, or both. UNCJIN on the World Wide Web falls into the latter category. A selection of criminal justice web sites is provided in the appendix. The Internet is also the reflection of deeper changes in the structure of the information society. Thus, this paper also reviews the ways in which criminal justice agencies must respond to these changes especially in respect to the changing structure of authority and control in the information society. With the rapidity of change, there is the danger that criminal justice agencies may become the victims of the information technology revolution, yet as major producers and users of criminal justice information they have the possibility to become leaders in the way in which criminal justice information is used and produced. The issues of utilisation, information, production, and the sharing of criminal justice information are therefore of crucial importance This section is organised in a rough historical sequence. It examines the broad historical and cultural origins of the revolution in information technology, culminating in an analysis of the changes both brought on and reflected by the Internet. It examines the deeper changes in authority and control in the post modern information society, linking them to the current needs of criminal justice agencies in terms of the generation, utilisation and haring of criminal justice information 2. The Information Age In the twentieth century societies in most parts of the world have undergone immense changes regardless of their level of development. The most drastic changes have occurred in the Western industrialised countries where the base of economic activity has shifted from large-scale industrial production to one of a service economy The service economy deals almost entirely in the processing, utilisation, and dissemination of information Formally called the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch
Formally called the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch. 1 CRIMINAL JUSTICE INFORMATION IN THE INFORMATION AGE: AN OVERVIEW Graeme Newman 1. Introduction The post modern age of information technology promises to transform both the content, accessibility and utilisation of criminal justice information. In this rapidly changing age, the structure of traditional authority is being undermined and replaced by an alternative method of societal control. The most significant instigator and reflector of this change is the Internet. The Internet provides heretofore unregulated and unlimited exchange of information among individuals and organisations via two levels of activity: First, anonymous exchange of information via electronic bulletin boards and discussion lists, using Email which has now come into its own. In criminal justice, the United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network-L (UNCJIN-L), an electronic bulletin board with over 700 members world wide, established by the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division , has pioneered this mode of information exchange. 1 Second, the Internet provides the dissemination and storage of large amounts of information in the form of databases or text, graphics, audio, and video now mainly on what is called the World Wide Web. The United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) pioneered the development of criminal justice databases on the Internet via the World Wide Web in 1991. Since that time many criminal justice databases and so-called home pages have appeared in many different physical places throughout the world, linked electronically via the World Wide Web. A home page may contain simply links to other sites of related interest, links to large databases contained physically at that site, or both. UNCJIN on the World Wide Web falls into the latter category. A selection of criminal justice web sites is provided in the appendix. The Internet is also the reflection of deeper changes in the structure of the information society. Thus, this paper also reviews the ways in which criminal justice agencies must respond to these changes especially in respect to the changing structure of authority and control in the information society. With the rapidity of change, there is the danger that criminal justice agencies may become the victims of the information technology revolution, yet as major producers and users of criminal justice information they have the possibility to become leaders in the way in which criminal justice information is used and produced. The issues of utilisation, information, production, and the sharing of criminal justice information are therefore of crucial importance. This section is organised in a rough historical sequence. It examines the broad historical and cultural origins of the revolution in information technology, culminating in an analysis of the changes both brought on and reflected by the Internet. It examines the deeper changes in authority and control in the post modern information society, linking them to the current needs of criminal justice agencies in terms of the generation, utilisation and sharing of criminal justice information. 2. The Information Age In the twentieth century societies in most parts of the world have undergone immense changes regardless of their level of development. The most drastic changes have occurred in the Western industrialised countries where the base of economic activity has shifted from large-scale industrial production to one of a service economy. The service economy deals almost entirely in the processing, utilisation, and dissemination of information
Industrialised countries have long exported their industrial strength and applied it to other, less developed countries,often being accused of exploitation. Particularly, industrialized nations have assisted in the creation of dependent economies in developing regions of the world. While this dependency throughout the world continues in many ways, it was at its height during the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century when colonialism dominated the world scene. Throughout the twentieth century many countries have managed to throw off the mantle of colonialism and assert their political independence. However, economic independence has beer very hard to obtain for many former colonial countries. The industrial might of the west seems unstoppable. Many of the positive aspects of the industrial west(e.g, improved health care, communications, and transportation)are attractive to many developing countries There exist a few success stories in which industrial or commercial development has transformed a country from one of wide-scale poverty in the mid twentieth century, to a shining example of capitalism, in which the standard of living for all citizens has risen dramatically(e.g. Hong Kong), with a quality of life easily matching hat of the West. a number of Asian countries on the Pacific Rim are following this line of progress agenda l. The problem that lingers on, however, is that the world appears dominated by a powerful Western ung people, no matter where in the world, prefer to dress in blue jeans, or western style clothes. Older people prefer to drive automobiles, adolescents prefer western music, and many--young and old--prefer the plethora of movies and television programs imported from the west. People all over the world are thus subject to a barrage of words, images and sounds that have been produced by Western culture. What makes it so powerful and Before we begin to understand the role of criminal justice information in the information age, we should first understand the of the information age, its implications for culture and life For it is the larger issues of life and culture that will shape the way in which criminal justice develops in the information age, and constrain the ways in which criminal justice information may be used and spread. Many claim that we are in the midst of an information revolution and this may be so. However, if it is a revolution it began a few thousand years ago 3. Origins of the Information Society Marshall MeCLuhan argues that the information society has developed out of a particular kind of culture which he calls alphabetic culture. McCluhan identifies three types of cultures as the forerunners of the major modern cultures throughout the world: auditory cultures, alphabetic cultures, and ideographic cultures Auditory were the original cultures; the knowledge source was the elders such as parents, neighbours, or village seniors.The transmission of knowledge was auditory (i.e, by word of mouth--folklore, stories, and songs. This was, however, an inefficient and unreliable way of storing and transmitting information. Only certain individuals had the capacity to remember the knowledge of a particular culture, and on re-telling, there was a good chance that the folklore would be changed or even forgotten. Ideographic cultures were(and are) those cultures in which knowledge was transmitted through a particular form of writing called ideographs. Ideographs are written symbols that have specific reference particular historical events and objects. Without knowledge of these events or objects, it is not possible to fully understand this type of written language. While this type of language allowed for the storing of information, it was highly specialised and required highly-educated individuals to truly understand and interpret it. Thus, it did not lend itself to wide-spread dissemination of knowledge. Knowledge, instead was the harbinger of elite educated individuals phabetic cultures probably arose out of the early hieroglyphics of the Egyptians although there is some controversy as to the actual origins of the alphabet as it appears in many languages today. However, in these cultures, the significant element is their efficiency. Letters can be used in virtually any combination to represent an object, thing or idea. They do not, as in ideographs and the earlier hieroglyphics, have to bear any resemblance at all to the object. A rough idea of the distance between object or idea and its representation as a word is provided McCLuhan, M. (1962)The Gutenberg Galary: The Making of Typographic Man.. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
- 2 - McCLuhan, M. (1962) The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 2 Industrialised countries have long exported their industrial strength and applied it to other, less developed countries, often being accused of exploitation. Particularly, industrialized nations have assisted in the creation of dependent economies in developing regions of the world. While this dependency throughout the world continues in many ways, it was at its height during the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century when colonialism dominated the world scene. Throughout the twentieth century many countries have managed to throw off the mantle of colonialism and assert their political independence. However, economic independence has been very hard to obtain for many former colonial countries. The industrial might of the west seems unstoppable. Many of the positive aspects of the industrial west (e.g., improved health care, communications, and transportation) are attractive to many developing countries.. There exist a few success stories in which industrial or commercial development has transformed a country from one of wide-scale poverty in the mid twentieth century, to a shining example of capitalism, in which the standard of living for all citizens has risen dramatically (e.g. Hong Kong), with a quality of life easily matching that of the West. A number of Asian countries on the Pacific Rim are following this line of progress. The problem that lingers on, however, is that the world appears dominated by a powerful Western agenda. Young people, no matter where in the world, prefer to dress in blue jeans, or western style clothes. Older people prefer to drive automobiles, adolescents prefer western music, and many--young and old--prefer the plethora of movies and television programs imported from the west. People all over the world are thus subject to a barrage of words, images and sounds that have been produced by Western culture. What makes it so powerful and popular? Before we begin to understand the role of criminal justice information in the information age, we should first understand the origins of the information age, its implications for culture and life. For it is the larger issues of life and culture that will shape the way in which criminal justice develops in the information age, and constrain the ways in which criminal justice information may be used and spread. Many claim that we are in the midst of an information revolution and this may be so. However, if it is a revolution it began a few thousand years ago. 3. Origins of the Information Society Marshall McCLuhan argues that the information society has developed out of a particular kind of culture which he calls alphabetic culture. McCluhan identifies three types of cultures as the forerunners of the 2 major modern cultures throughout the world: auditory cultures, alphabetic cultures, and ideographic cultures. Auditory were the original cultures; the knowledge source was the elders such as parents, neighbours, or village seniors. The transmission of knowledge was auditory (i.e., by word of mouth--folklore, stories, and songs). This was, however, an inefficient and unreliable way of storing and transmitting information. Only certain individuals had the capacity to remember the knowledge of a particular culture, and on re-telling, there was a good chance that the folklore would be changed, or even forgotten. Ideographic cultures were (and are) those cultures in which knowledge was transmitted through a particular form of writing called ideographs. Ideographs are written symbols that have specific reference to particular historical events and objects. Without knowledge of these events or objects, it is not possible to fully understand this type of written language. While this type of language allowed for the storing of information, it was highly specialised and required highly-educated individuals to truly understand and interpret it. Thus, it did not lend itself to wide-spread dissemination of knowledge. Knowledge, instead was the harbinger of elite educated individuals. Alphabetic cultures probably arose out of the early hieroglyphics of the Egyptians although there is some controversy as to the actual origins of the alphabet as it appears in many languages today. However, in these cultures, the significant element is their efficiency. Letters can be used in virtually any combination to represent an object, thing or idea. They do not, as in ideographs and the earlier hieroglyphics, have to bear any resemblance at all to the object. A rough idea of the distance between object or idea and its representation as a word is provided
in the figure below. The stylised representation of a bird similar to that used in hieroglyphics is still recognisable as representing a bird, but the word"bird "bears no resemblance to a bird at all. That is, the concept is completely divorced from the object. Indeed, some would say that form was separated from content. This is the crucial beginning of the information revolution The alphabet made knowledge transportable in a way like never before, making it possible to store knowledge in an efficient, error-free, shorthand form. Complex images did not have to be reproduced. Just the simple forms of letters combined in certain ways were sufficient. It is this ease of storing knowledge and its communication that are key to the information society Figure 1: Form Separated from Content This bird is not a bird This crucial beginning, the development of alphabetic cultures, gave rise to the now well known history of information technology(see Table 1). As we can see, technology, particularly after the discovery of electricity has advanced greatly in this century. Technological development in the past 50 years has been especially rapid Table 1: Time Line of Information Technology Development Generations ago 200 Writing invented in the Near east; large amounts of information can be stored without error and transmitted to succeeding generations Alphabet invented; the first“ technology
- 3 - in the figure below. The stylised representation of a bird similar to that used in hieroglyphics is still recognisable as representing a bird, but the word “bird” bears no resemblance to a bird at all. That is, the concept is completely divorced from the object. Indeed, some would say that form was separated from content. This is the crucial beginning of the information revolution. The alphabet made knowledge transportable in a way like never before, making it possible to store knowledge in an efficient, error-free, shorthand form. Complex images did not have to be reproduced. Just the simple forms of letters combined in certain ways were sufficient. It is this ease of storing knowledge and its communication that are key to the information society. Figure 1: Form Separated from Content This crucial beginning, the development of alphabetic cultures, gave rise to the now well known history of information technology (see Table 1). As we can see, technology, particularly after the discovery of electricity, has advanced greatly in this century. Technological development in the past 50 years has been especially rapid. Table 1: Time Line of Information Technology Development Generations ago Event 200 Writing invented in the Near East; large amounts of information can be stored without error and transmitted to succeeding generations 100 Alphabet invented; the first “technology
4 Gutenberg printing press with movable type shortens the labour of copyists; standardised printing Luther and Dante free writing from Latin, thereby further democratising the nted word The pace quickens. Morse demonstrates the electric telegraph. " News "can be communicated in an instantly Telegraph cable laid across the Atlantic, thus linking Europe and America, reducing communication time by a factor of a million 3 Marconi invents the wireless(1895). Edison invents the phonograph Television pictures transmitted First IBM computer in 1953, which in 1977 was available as a hand held calculator Personal computer in 1982, optical disks, fiber optics, satellite transmission, cell phones, multimedia current The Internet: communication and information come together current World wide web: knowledge universalised through hypertext Although the speed of change in this century gives the impression of a revolution, the changes, in fact, represent a logical evolution of alphabetic culture As we see above, the primary separation of people from knowledge occurred as a result of the cultural elite having access to the secrets of written language. In the middle ages in Europe, this separation was visible in the structure of society-between peasants and lords, between the rabble and the educated (consisting largely of the priesthood whose education was entirely in Latin or Greek). In the time of Martin Luther these things began to
- 4 - 18 Gutenberg printing press with movable type shortens the labour of copyists; standardised printing 14 Luther and Dante free writing from Latin, thereby further democratising the printed word 5 The pace quickens. Morse demonstrates the electric telegraph. “News” can be communicated in an instantly 4 Telegraph cable laid across the Atlantic, thus linking Europe and America, reducing communication time by a factor of a million 3 Marconi invents the wireless (1895). Edison invents the phonograph 1 Television pictures transmitted. First IBM computer in 1953, which in 1977 was available as a hand held calculator current Personal computer in 1982, optical disks, fiber optics, satellite transmission, cell phones, multimedia current The Internet: communication and information come together current World Wide Web: knowledge universalised through hypertext Although the speed of change in this century gives the impression of a revolution, the changes, in fact, represent a logical evolution of alphabetic culture. As we see above, the primary separation of people from knowledge occurred as a result of the cultural elite having access to the secrets of written language. In the middle ages in Europe, this separation was visible in the structure of society--between peasants and lords, between the rabble and the educated (consisting largely of the priesthood whose education was entirely in Latin or Greek). In the time of Martin Luther these things began to
Luther's translation of The Bible in the early sixteenth century provides one example(albeit non- technical)of the construction of new patterns of knowledge and the rapid dissemination of information. Suddenly The Bible became German. Furthermore, Luther expressed great surprise at the speed with which his writings were translated from Latin using the printing press and distributed throughout Europe. The same occurred in many spheres of knowledge, particularly science and alchemy. Historians have observed how the power of the d word was expanded beyond the realm of the elite to an increasing proportion of society who could read the The late Middle Ages is known as a time of the passing of traditional society. Events such as Luthers questioning of The Church, and the explosion of new ideas that arose during and after that time led to breakdown of the traditional relationship between lord and serf, king and country. The questioning of ideas, loyalties, beliefs, and authority continued relentlessly, spurring social rebellion and the establishment of a new order. Concurrent with this dissention, or perhaps pushing it along, was the publication of masses of tracts, pamphlets, and books Sometimes described by scholars as a period of the democratisation of knowledge, the late Middle Ages was a time when knowledge became accessible to al 4. The democratisation of knowledge With democratisation, individuals act freely, elect their representatives, and have open access to knowledge. There are at least six ways in which knowledge has been democratised since the period of the reformation 4.1 Breath of Dissemination Once Luther translated The Bible into german, and scholars such as bacon and dante wrote for the popular tongue, knowledge became accessible by a much broader range of people. Information was no longer confined to those who could read Latin 4.2 Speed of Dissemination The Gutenberg printing press made it easier to print multiple copies of articles and broadsides. With improvements in transportation, pamphlets could then be distributed more quickly. With technologicl innovations of the last two centuries, the speed of dissemination of knowledge has become virtually instantaneous, providing less opportunity for adulteration of information by social elites. Indeed, since the very first use of the telegraph in 1844, the importance of immediacy of news(often regardless of content) has reigned supreme in the media What better example of the undercutting of authoritative knowledge(and hence its democratisation) than the on- ' Postman, N(1992) Technopoly The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage Postman, N.(1984)Amucing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of shonw Business. London: Penguin
- 5 - Postman, N. (1992) Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage. 3 Postman, N. (1984) Amuzing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business. London: Penguin. 4 change, however. Luther’s translation of The Bible in the early sixteenth century provides one example (albeit nontechnical) of the construction of new patterns of knowledge and the rapid dissemination of information. Suddenly, The Bible became German. Furthermore, Luther expressed great surprise at the speed with which his writings were translated from Latin using the printing press and distributed throughout Europe. The same occurred in many spheres of knowledge, particularly science and alchemy . Historians have observed how the power of the 3 printed word was expanded beyond the realm of the elite to an increasing proportion of society who could read the common language. The late Middle Ages is known as a time of the passing of traditional society. Events such as Luther’s questioning of The Church, and the explosion of new ideas that arose during and after that time led to breakdown of the traditional relationship between lord and serf, king and country. The questioning of ideas, loyalties, beliefs, and authority continued relentlessly, spurring social rebellion and the establishment of a new order. Concurrent with this dissention, or perhaps pushing it along, was the publication of masses of tracts, pamphlets, and books. Sometimes described by scholars as a period of the democratisation of knowledge, the late Middle Ages was a time when knowledge became accessible to all. 4. The Democratisation of Knowledge With democratisation, individuals act freely, elect their representatives, and have open access to knowledge. There are at least six ways in which knowledge has been democratised since the period of the reformation: 4.1 Breath of Dissemination Once Luther translated The Bible into German, and scholars such as Bacon and Dante wrote for the popular tongue, knowledge became accessible by a much broader range of people. Information was no longer confined to those who could read Latin. 4.2 Speed of Dissemination The Gutenberg printing press made it easier to print multiple copies of articles and broadsides. With improvements in transportation, pamphlets could then be distributed more quickly. With technologicl innovations of the last two centuries, the speed of dissemination of knowledge has become virtually instantaneous, providing less opportunity for adulteration of information by social elites. Indeed, since the very first use of the telegraph in 1844, the importance of immediacy of news (often regardless of content) has reigned supreme in the media . 4 What better example of the undercutting of authoritative knowledge (and hence its democratisation) than the on-