the-spot reporting of the Gulf war: Even before diplomats, politicians, and military personnel could filter it, the world gained access to news through the media 4.3 Disembodiment of Ideas noted earlier, knowledge in auditory cultures was embodied in the communal elder, who established the authority of the knowledge itself. However, with the printed book, alphabetic culture transferred the authority of knowledge to the physical object-ideas were retained in books and could be widely distributed. While there has always been a tendency for the masses to embody ideas in a person of great stature(e.g. Mao Tse Tungs Little red Book), the information society has emphasized ideology rather than glorify particular individuals. This change is particularly noticeable in the last decade 4.4 Minority Views are equalised By separating knowledge from individuals, it has become possible for minority views to gain equal footing in the field of knowledge. For example, given the cultural (and Christian) climate at the time, Luthers views were of in the minority but gained visibility as he reached a broader audience. Thus, the established structure underlying knowledge was attacked and undermined 4.5 Knowledge is Transformed into Information In response to the surge in written word, an industry arose whose main function it was to reproduce and distribure books, pamphlets, and other written materials. These industries were only secondarily concerned with the content of the material they published, however(unless it affected distribution). Neil Postman makes a forceful argument that in the late twentieth century society has reached the end of this dissemination in that information is left with no structure to it. In effect, knowledge has lost authority 5. The relationship between Knowledge and order On the side of order, it must be seen that the advent of the printing press with movable type brought an orderliness and standardisation to the publishing industry. Errors made when copying text and graphics by hand were eliminated. In 1516, the first book paginated with Arabic numerals was introduced--surely an indication of the order of the printed form. A chronological structure of books(starting at the beginning, and continuing in an orderly fashion, to the end) was established. Thus, the Middle Ages introduced an imposition of order and aesthetic standard for printed work. In the modern printed book these standards and order remain apparent: most text is justified and proportional; running headers occur on each page; chapters are clearly marked and pages numbered. The layout of the title page is standardised, as is the copyright page. An index is al ways found in the back(in English language texts, that is). In fact, entire books have been dedicated to the instruction of rules of style, grammar, and punctuation(e.g, The Chicago Manual of Style). These are attempts to impose order on all printed documents
- 6 - the-spot reporting of the Gulf war: Even before diplomats, politicians, and military personnel could filter it, the world gained access to news through the media. 4.3 Disembodiment of Ideas As noted earlier, knowledge in auditory cultures was embodied in the communal elder, who established the authority of the knowledge itself. However, with the printed book, alphabetic culture transferred the authority of knowledge to the physical object--ideas were retained in books and could be widely distributed. While there has always been a tendency for the masses to embody ideas in a person of great stature (e.g. Mao Tse Tung’s Little Red Book), the information society has emphasized ideology rather than glorify particular individuals. This change is particularly noticeable in the last decade. 4.4 Minority Views are Equalised By separating knowledge from individuals, it has become possible for minority views to gain equal footing in the field of knowledge. For example, given the cultural (and Christian) climate at the time, Luther’s views were of in the minority but gained visibility as he reached a broader audience. Thus, the established structure underlying knowledge was attacked and undermined. 4.5 Knowledge is Transformed into Information In response to the surge in written word, an industry arose whose main function it was to reproduce and distribure books, pamphlets, and other written materials. These industries were only secondarily concerned with the content of the material they published, however (unless it affected distribution). Neil Postman makes a forceful argument that in the late twentieth century society has reached the end of this dissemination in that information is left with no structure to it. In effect, knowledge has lost authority. 5. The Relationship Between Knowledge and Order On the side of order, it must be seen that the advent of the printing press with movable type brought an orderliness and standardisation to the publishing industry. Errors made when copying text and graphics by hand were eliminated. In 1516, the first book paginated with Arabic numerals was introduced--surely an indication of the order of the printed form. A chronological structure of books (starting at the beginning, and continuing in an orderly fashion, to the end) was established. Thus, the Middle Ages introduced an imposition of order and an aesthetic standard for printed work. In the modern printed book these standards and order remain apparent: most text is justified and proportional; running headers occur on each page; chapters are clearly marked and pages numbered. The layout of the title page is standardised, as is the copyright page. An index is always found in the back (in English language texts, that is). In fact, entire books have been dedicated to the instruction of rules of style, grammar, and punctuation (e.g., The Chicago Manual of Style). These are attempts to impose order on all printed documents
Unfortunately, this order eventually affected the quality and substance of knowledge itself in that it required text to conform to a linear model. The rigidity of this model discouraged later thinking and made the dissemination of information difficult 6. The transformation of Knowledge into Information We can see from the time line of change that another important event undermining the traditional structure of knowledge was the rapid communication of information that became possible after the invention of the telegraph, telephone, television and radio, and finally computers. The immediacy of information became of prime importance. The telegraph was initially used, for example, to convey results of a battle to a newspaper which then printed the story. Swift immediate knowledge of an event--news--became a premium, and has in many respects taken over the knowledge base of Western society. However, some believe that while such news may be information, it is not knowledge in the traditional sense; it fails to add to a body of knowledge in which there is the repository of wisdom. Television provides an example: sound bytes and news clips are used one day, and are gone the next. News has a very brief life. News organisations report on the most recent, striking events, while stories of the distant past are relegated to obscure television channels The transformation of communications into instantaneous news-making technology has changed the way society values knowledge. The immediate and the present have taken priority over history, undermining traditional order. Yet this change in the way information is viewed is but a logical extension of the alphabetic culture which began long ago: it is now the accumulated abstract and disembodied symbols of life. The traditional book is the last bastion of ordered knowledge. Moreover, the order of society has been transferred into the ordered inearity of the book Change has separated the order that resided in the authority of revered individuals on to the physical objects of books. Once upon a time order was transmitted in traditional(auditory)societies from elders to the younger, and authority was recognised in age and experience. In contrast, the late twentieth century is a new age. Because of the primacy of immediacy over history, age and experience have come to mean much less. In fact, inexperience(i.e youth) has come to be revered in western society In sum, knowledge has become a commodity, and in that sense is no longer knowledge, but information- -a product like any other product. Karl Marx wrote that the process of goods exchange erodes the intrinsic value of the commodity or product, such that it becomes only worth what the marketplace is willing to pay. Thus, the essential transformation of knowledge into information"gutts"knowledge of its substance giving it value only in terms of its exterior qualities in the market place, subject to the laws of supply and demand What Marx could not have foreseen is that information used in the market place can also affect its demand in profound ways Advertising, for example, is a way of using information as a means to enhance demand for products, many of which depend on information for their value. Thus, while information has little intrinsic value, it has tremendous value as a motivating force in the market place. As the twentieth century draws to a close, it appears that information has gained the upper hand, and has subsequently created a massive demand, despite the present glut Postman, N(1992)Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage Bouloukos, A. C, D. C. Benamati, G. R. Newman(1995)"Teaching Information Literacy "in Journal of Criminal Justice Education6(2)213-233
- 7 - Postman, N. (1992) Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage. 5 Bouloukos, A. C., D. C. Benamati, G. R. Newman (1995) “Teaching Information Literacy” in Journal of Criminal Justice 6 Education 6(2) 213-233. Unfortunately, this order eventually affected the quality and substance of knowledge itself in that it required text to conform to a linear model. The rigidity of this model discouraged later thinking and made the dissemination of information difficult. 6. The Transformation of Knowledge into Information We can see from the time line of change that another important event undermining the traditional structure of knowledge was the rapid communication of information that became possible after the invention of the telegraph, telephone, television and radio, and finally computers. The immediacy of information became of prime importance. The telegraph was initially used, for example, to convey results of a battle to a newspaper which then printed the story. Swift immediate knowledge of an event--news--became a premium, and has in many respects taken over the knowledge base of Western society. However, some believe that while such news may be information, it is not knowledge in the traditional sense; it fails to add to a body of knowledge in which there is the repository of wisdom. Television provides an example: sound bytes and news clips are used one day, and are gone the next. News has a very brief life. News organisations report on the most recent, striking events, while stories of the distant past are relegated to obscure television channels. The transformation of communications into instantaneous news-making technology has changed the way society values knowledge. The immediate and the present have taken priority over history, undermining traditional order. Yet this change in the way information is viewed is but a logical extension of the alphabetic culture which began long ago: it is now the accumulated abstract and disembodied symbols of life. The traditional book is the last bastion of ordered knowledge. Moreover, the order of society has been transferred into the ordered linearity of the book. Change has separated the order that resided in the authority of revered individuals on to the physical objects of books. Once upon a time order was transmitted in traditional (auditory) societies from elders to the younger, and authority was recognised in age and experience. In contrast, the late twentieth century is a new age. Because of the primacy of immediacy over history, age and experience have come to mean much less. In fact, inexperience (i.e. youth) has come to be revered in western society. In sum, knowledge has become a commodity, and in that sense is no longer knowledge, but information- -a product like any other product . Karl Marx wrote that the process of goods exchange erodes the intrinsic value 5 of the commodity or product, such that it becomes only worth what the marketplace is willing to pay. Thus, the essential transformation of knowledge into information “gutts” knowledge of its substance giving it value only 6 in terms of its exterior qualities in the market place, subject to the laws of supply and demand. What Marx could not have foreseen is that information used in the market place can also affect its demand in profound ways. Advertising, for example, is a way of using information as a means to enhance demand for products, many of which depend on information for their value. Thus, while information has little intrinsic value, it has tremendous value as a motivating force in the market place. As the twentieth century draws to a close, it appears that information has gained the upper hand, and has subsequently created a massive demand, despite the present glut
of information, as Postman points out. It is out of this excess that mass culture is formed Yet in spite of the undermining events of recent history, society has remained relatively ordered. Chaos has not broken out, though we often think a breakout is imminent where does order come from in the modern alphabetic culture? The answer is that modern societies have transformed order into control 7. Transformation of order into control Order emanates from the very media that have been central to the revolutionary change in information technology: the mass media. Let us reconsider the essential elements of auditory cultures, knowledge communicated interpersonally, through songs, rituals, and stories. There is a strong emotional element to this communication. The mass media, however, have circumvented the ordering role of elder statesmen, or other institutions for the communication of knowledge, and gone straight to the masses. Radio, television, and newspapers undermine the traditional veneration of age by placing priority on the immediacy and novelty of information, as we have seen above. More important, the mass media blur the distinction between information ( daily activities such as records, statistics and events)and knowledge( the ordered, historical meaning of life) Thus, because authority no longer resides in knowledge, it is easy prey to the powers of modern mass communications. And modern mass communications are able to exploit and convey their message using emotionally-charged visual and auditory media. Their method of communication is similar to that of auditory cultures, but far more powerful. Yet mass media only superficially communicate knowledge, as they have unwittingly eroded the basis of knowledge itself. That is, as McCluhan and Postman have argued, the medium itself changes the nature and content of the message. Mass media exert raw power over the masses. They hold the pwer to create needs and desires where they did not exist(as through advertising) The mass media market pre-packaged information to the masses who remain passive consumers of information. We should note that this is ranw power exerted over the masses, as distinct from the authority exerted in the middle ages which emanated from the authority of religion(e.g. The Bible or The Koran) In a democracy the free media therefore competes with established authority structures such as the bureaucracies of government for control, and exerts a powerful check on the control exerted by government. This is why in a less than democratic society, where the government regulates the media, control of the masses may approach the absolute. Thus, while the changes in media(outlined in Table 1)are important in understanding the revolution in information technology today, they tell only part of the story. Changes that have come about society in response to the undermining of traditional authority explain the rest. These institutions are the bureaucracies of society, of which criminal justice is one 8. Bureaucracies, Information and Control As many sociologists have observed, bureaucracies arose to cope with the disintegration of traditional society, and in response to the demands of the industrial revolution. Bureaucracies provided a way of orgar large numbers of people to perform together in accomplishing complex tasks(in the factory, for example)
- 8 - of information, as Postman points out. It is out of this excess that mass culture is formed. Yet in spite of the undermining events of recent history, society has remained relatively ordered. Chaos has not broken out, though we often think a breakout is imminent. Where does order come from in the modern alphabetic culture? The answer is that modern societies have transformed order into control. 7. Transformation of Order into Control Order emanates from the very media that have been central to the revolutionary change in information technology: the mass media. Let us reconsider the essential elements of auditory cultures; knowledge is communicated interpersonally, through songs, rituals, and stories. There is a strong emotional element to this communication. The mass media, however, have circumvented the ordering role of elder statesmen, or other institutions for the communication of knowledge, and gone straight to the masses. Radio, television, and newspapers undermine the traditional veneration of age by placing priority on the immediacy and novelty of information, as we have seen above. More important, the mass media blur the distinction between information (daily activities such as records, statistics and events) and knowledge (the ordered, historical meaning of life). Thus, because authority no longer resides in knowledge, it is easy prey to the powers of modern mass communications. And modern mass communications are able to exploit and convey their message using emotionally-charged visual and auditory media. Their method of communication is similar to that of auditory cultures, but far more powerful. Yet mass media only superficially communicate knowledge,as they have unwittingly eroded the basis of knowledge itself. That is, as McCluhan and Postman have argued, the medium itself changes the nature and content of the message. Mass media exert raw power over the masses. They hold the pwer to create needs and desires where they did not exist (as through advertising). The mass media market pre-packaged information to the masses who remain passive consumers of information. We should note that this is raw power exerted over the masses, as distinct from the authority exerted in the middle ages which emanated from the authority of religion (e.g. The Bible or The Koran). In a democracy the free media therefore competes with established authority structures such as the bureaucracies of government for control, and exerts a powerful check on the control exerted by government. This is why in a less than democratic society, where the government regulates the media, control of the masses may approach the absolute. Thus, while the changes in media (outlined in Table 1) are important in understanding the revolution in information technology today, they tell only part of the story. Changes that have come about in society in response to the undermining of traditional authority explain the rest. These institutions are the bureaucracies of society, of which criminal justice is one. 8. Bureaucracies, Information and Control As many sociologists have observed, bureaucracies arose to cope with the disintegration of traditional society, and in response to the demands of the industrial revolution. Bureaucracies provided a way of organising large numbers of people to perform together in accomplishing complex tasks (in the factory, for example)