viii Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 95 Evaluating Properties Using 3.1 Getting Started 96 the ldeal Gas Model 132 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 96 3.12 Introducing the ldeal Gas 3.1.2 Fixing the State 96 Model 132 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 132 Evaluating Properties: 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 132 General Considerations 97 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 135 3.2 p-v-T Relation 97 3.13 Internal Energy,Enthalpy,and Specific 3.2.1 P-v-T Surface 98 Heats of Ideal Gases 135 3.2.2 Projections of the P-v-T Surface 100 313.1△u,△h,Cu and Cp Relations135 3.3 Studying Phase Change 101 3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 137 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Properties 104 Gas Tables,Constant Specific Heats,and 3.5 Evaluating Pressure,Specific Volume, Software 138 and Temperature 105 3.14.1 Using ldeal Gas Tables 138 3-5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 105 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 140 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 107 3.14.3 Using Computer Software 142 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 146 Enthalpy 111 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 148 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 111 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 111 4 Control Volume Analysis 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Using Energy 169 Values 113 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Volume 170 Software 113 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Balance 170 Property Tables and Software 115 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 116 Rate 171 3.8.2 Using Software 119 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 172 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats c 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass and cp 122 Rate Balance 172 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Balance 173 Solids 123 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Balance 173 Saturated Liquid Data 123 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 124 Balance 174 3.11 Generalized Compressibility 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 174 Chart 126 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant,R 127 Application 175 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor,Z 127 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Control Volume 178 Z Chart 128 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a 3.11.4 Equations of State 131 Control Volume 178
viii Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 95 3.1 Getting Started 96 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 96 3.1.2 Fixing the State 96 Evaluating Properties: General Considerations 97 3.2 p–y–T Relation 97 3.2.1 p–y–T Surface 98 3.2.2 Projections of the p–y–T Surface 100 3.3 Studying Phase Change 101 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 104 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specifi c Volume, and Temperature 105 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 105 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 107 3.6 Evaluating Specifi c Internal Energy and Enthalpy 111 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 111 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 111 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 113 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Soft ware 113 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Soft ware 115 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 116 3.8.2 Using Soft ware 119 3.9 Introducing Specifi c Heats cy and cp 122 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 123 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 123 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 124 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 126 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R 127 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 127 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 128 3.11.4 Equations of State 131 Evaluating Properties Using the Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 132 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 135 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specifi c Heats of Ideal Gases 135 3.13.1 Du, Dh, cy, and cp Relations 135 3.13.2 Using Specifi c Heat Functions 137 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specifi c Heats, and Soft ware 138 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 138 3.14.2 Using Constant Specifi c Heats 140 3.14.3 Using Computer Soft ware 142 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 146 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 148 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 169 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 170 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 170 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 171 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 172 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 172 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 173 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 173 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 174 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 174 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 175 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 178 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 178
Contents ix 4-4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control 5The Second Law Volume 179 of Thermodynamics 241 4-4-3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 179 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 242 4-4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 242 Rate Balance 180 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Work 244 Steady State 181 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 244 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 245 Rate Balances 181 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Law 245 Volumes at Steady State 182 5.2.2 Kelvin-Planck Statement of the 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 183 Second Law 245 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Considerations 184 Law 247 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 184 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 248 4.7 Turbines 186 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible 4-7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Processes 248 Considerations 188 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 249 4-7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 188 5-3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 250 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 190 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 252 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 253 Considerations 190 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin-Planck 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Statement 254 Pump System 190 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Storage 194 Thermodynamic Cycles 256 4.9 Heat Exchangers 195 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Cycles Interacting with Two Considerations 196 Reservoirs 256 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 256 and Computer Cooling 196 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power 4.10 Throttling Devices 200 Cycles 257 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Considerations 200 Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Reservoirs 259 Determine Quality 201 5-7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 259 4.11 System Integration 202 5-7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for 4.12 Transient Analysis 205 Refrigeration and Heat Pump 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Cycles 260 Analysis 205 5.8 The Kelvin and International 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Temperature Scales 261 Analysis 206 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 261 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 207 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 263 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 215 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 264
Contents ix 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 179 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 179 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 180 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 181 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 181 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 182 4.6 Nozzles and Diff users 183 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diff user Modeling Considerations 184 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 184 4.7 Turbines 186 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 188 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 188 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 190 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 190 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 190 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 194 4.9 Heat Exchangers 195 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 196 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 196 4.10 Throttling Devices 200 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 200 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 201 4.11 System Integration 202 4.12 Transient Analysis 205 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 205 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 206 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 207 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 215 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 241 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 242 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 242 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 244 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 244 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 245 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 245 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 245 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 247 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 248 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 248 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 249 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 250 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 252 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 253 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 254 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 256 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 256 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Effi ciency 256 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 257 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 259 5.7.1 Limits on Coeffi cients of Performance 259 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 260 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 261 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 261 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 263 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 264
X Contents 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and for Cycles Operating Between Two Transfer 307 Reservoirs 264 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy 5-9.1 Power Cycles 265 Balance 307 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 267 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 310 5.10 Carnot Cycle 270 6.8 Directionality of Processes 312 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 270 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 312 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation Cycles 272 of Entropy 315 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 272 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control 5.11 Clausius Inequality 273 Volumes 317 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 275 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6 Using Entropy 291 6.10.1 One-Inlet,One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6.1 Entropy-A System Property 292 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 292 Control Volumes at Steady 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 293 State 319 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 293 6.11 Isentropic Processes 325 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 293 6.11.1 General Considerations 326 6.2.1 Vapor Data 294 6.11.2 Using the ldeal Gas Model 326 6.2.2 Saturation Data 294 6.11.3 Illustrations:Isentropic Processes 6.2.3 Liquid Data 294 ofAir 328 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 295 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 295 Nozzles,Compressors,and Pumps 332 6.3 Introducing the Tds Equations 296 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 332 6.4 Entropy Change of an 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 335 Incompressible Substance 298 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 299 Efficiencies 337 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 299 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 301 Reversible,Steady-State Flow 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 301 Processes 339 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 339 Processes of Closed Systems 302 6.132Work340 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat 6.13.3 Work In Polytropic Processes 341 Transfer 302 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 343 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 302 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally 7 Exergy Analysis 369 Reversible Process of Water 303 7.1 Introducing Exergy 370 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 305 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 371 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 372 Balance 306 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 372
x Contents 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 264 5.9.1 Power Cycles 265 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 267 5.10 Carnot Cycle 270 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 270 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 272 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 272 5.11 Clausius Inequality 273 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 275 6 Using Entropy 291 6.1 Entropy–A System Property 292 6.1.1 Defi ning Entropy Change 292 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 293 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 293 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 293 6.2.1 Vapor Data 294 6.2.2 Saturation Data 294 6.2.3 Liquid Data 294 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 295 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 295 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 296 6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 298 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 299 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 299 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specifi c Heats 301 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 301 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 302 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 302 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 302 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water 303 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 305 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 306 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 307 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance 307 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 310 6.8 Directionality of Processes 312 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 312 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 315 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 317 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State 319 6.11 Isentropic Processes 325 6.11.1 General Considerations 326 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 326 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 328 6.12 Isentropic Effi ciencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 332 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Effi ciency 332 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Effi ciency 335 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Effi ciencies 337 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 339 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 339 6.13.2 Work 340 6.13.3 Work In Polytropic Processes 341 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 343 7 Exergy Analysis 369 7.1 Introducing Exergy 370 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 371 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 372 7.2.2 Defi ning Exergy 372
Contents xi 7.3 Exergy of a System 372 8.4 Improving Performance-Regenerative 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 375 Vapor Power Cycle 465 7.3.2 Specific Exergy 376 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 465 7.3-3 Exergy Change 378 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 470 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 378 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 471 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 475 Balance 379 8.5.1 Working Fluids 475 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate 8.5.2 Cogeneration 477 Balance 383 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 477 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 384 8.6 Case Study:Exergy Accounting 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 386 of a Vapor Power Plant 480 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes Chapter Summary and Study Guide 487 at Steady State 387 7-5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 390 9 Gas Power Systems 509 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Considering Internal Combustion Engines 510 Volumes at Steady State 390 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 510 7-5-3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 395 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 513 7.6 Exergetic(Second Law)Efficiency 399 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 518 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 400 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 522 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 Components 402 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Efficiencies 404 7.7 Thermoeconomics 405 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 526 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat 7.7.1 Costing 405 Transfers 527 7-7.2 Using Exergy in Design 406 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 528 7-7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities System 408 and Losses 534 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 413 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 537 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat 8 Vapor Power Systems 437 and Intercooling 541 Introducing Power Generation 438 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 542 Considering Vapor Power Systems 442 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 544 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 442 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 548 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 445 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 552 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 446 9.9 Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycles 553 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 449 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle 553 8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures 9.9.2 Cogeneration 560 on the Rankine Cycle 453 9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 455 Power Plants 560 8.3 Improving Performance-Superheat, 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Reheat,and Supercritical 459 Propulsion 562
Contents xi 7.3 Exergy of a System 372 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 375 7.3.2 Specifi c Exergy 376 7.3.3 Exergy Change 378 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 378 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance 379 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance 383 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 384 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 386 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State 387 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 390 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at Steady State 390 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 395 7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Effi ciency 399 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 400 7.6.2 Exergetic Effi ciencies of Common Components 402 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Effi ciencies 404 7.7 Thermoeconomics 405 7.7.1 Costing 405 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design 406 7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System 408 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 413 8 Vapor Power Systems 437 Introducing Power Generation 438 Considering Vapor Power Systems 442 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 442 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 445 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 446 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 449 8.2.3 Eff ects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the Rankine Cycle 453 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 455 8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical 459 8.4 Improving Performance— Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 465 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 465 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 470 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 471 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 475 8.5.1 Working Fluids 475 8.5.2 Cogeneration 477 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 477 8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 480 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 487 9 Gas Power Systems 509 Considering Internal Combustion Engines 510 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 510 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 513 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 518 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 522 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 526 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 527 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 528 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses 534 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 537 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 541 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 542 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 544 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 548 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 552 9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 553 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle 553 9.9.2 Cogeneration 560 9.10 Integrated Gasifi cation Combined-Cycle Power Plants 560 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 562
xii Contents Considering Compressible Flow Through 10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 627 Nozzles and Diffusers 566 10.6 Heat Pump Systems 629 9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 566 10.6.1 Carnot Heat Pump Cycle 629 9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady 10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat One-Dimensional Flow 567 Pumps 629 9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach 10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 633 Number 568 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle 633 9.12.3 Determining Stagnation State Properties 571 10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications 637 9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow 1o.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon in Nozzles and Diffusers 571 Dioxide 638 9.13.1 Exploring the Effects of Area Change in Chapter Summary and Study Guide 640 Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 571 9.13.2 Effects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 574 11 Thermodynamic Relations 655 9.13-3 Flow Across a Normal Shock 576 11.1 Using Equations of State 656 9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of ldeal 1.1.1 Getting Started 656 Gases with Constant Specific 1.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State 657 Heats 577 1.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State 661 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions 578 11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 662 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions 581 11.3 Developing Property Relations 665 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 585 1.3.1 Principal Exact Differentials 666 1.3.2 Property Relations from Exact 10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Differentials 666 Systems 609 1.3-3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 671 10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 610 1.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 610 Internal Energy,and Enthalpy 672 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle 611 1.4.1 Considering Phase Change 672 10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression 1.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Refrigeration Systems 612 Regions 675 1o.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat 11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 680 Transfers 612 1.5-1 Volume Expansivity,Isothermal and 10.2.2 Performance of ldeal Vapor- Isentropic Compressibility 681 Compression Systems 613 1-5.2 Relations Involving Specific Heats 682 10.2.3 Performance of Actual Vapor- Compression Systems 616 1.5-3 Joule-Thomson Coefficient 685 10.2.4 The p-h Diagram 620 1.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 687 10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 620 1.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using 10.4 Other Vapor-Compression P-v-T and Specific Heat Data 688 Applications 624 1.6.2 Developing Tables by Differentiating 10.4.1 Cold Storage 624 a Fundamental Thermodynamic 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles 625 Function 689 10.4.3 Multistage Compression with 11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy Intercooling 626 and Entropy 692
xii Contents Considering Compressible Flow Through Nozzles and Diff users 566 9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 566 9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Flow 567 9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach Number 568 9.12.3 Determining Stagnation State Properties 571 9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles and Diff users 571 9.13.1 Exploring the Eff ects of Area Change in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 571 9.13.2 Eff ects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 574 9.13.3 Flow Across a Normal Shock 576 9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diff users of Ideal Gases with Constant Specifi c Heats 577 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions 578 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions 581 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 585 10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems 609 10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 610 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 610 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle 611 10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 612 10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 612 10.2.2 Performance of Ideal VaporCompression Systems 613 10.2.3 Performance of Actual VaporCompression Systems 616 10.2.4 The p–h Diagram 620 10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 620 10.4 Other Vapor-Compression Applications 624 10.4.1 Cold Storage 624 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles 625 10.4.3 Multistage Compression with Intercooling 626 10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 627 10.6 Heat Pump Systems 629 10.6.1 Carnot Heat Pump Cycle 629 10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps 629 10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 633 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle 633 10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications 637 10.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon Dioxide 638 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 640 11 Thermodynamic Relations 655 11.1 Using Equations of State 656 11.1.1 Getting Started 656 11.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State 657 11.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State 661 11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 662 11.3 Developing Property Relations 665 11.3.1 Principal Exact Diff erentials 666 11.3.2 Property Relations from Exact Diff erentials 666 11.3.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 671 11.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy 672 11.4.1 Considering Phase Change 672 11.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Regions 675 11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 680 11.5.1 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility 681 11.5.2 Relations Involving Specifi c Heats 682 11.5.3 Joule–Thomson Coeffi cient 685 11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 687 11.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using p–y–T and Specifi c Heat Data 688 11.6.2 Developing Tables by Diff erentiating a Fundamental Thermodynamic Function 689 11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy 692