MUSLIM REVOLTS 2I7 God)led to a revolt against the Ch'ing authorities.Defeated and executed, Ma was regarded as a saint (sheng jen)by his followers,who had to go under- ground.By the time the great Muslim Rebellion of Shensi-Kansu broke out in 1862,his mantle had descended to Ma Hua-lung,of Chin-chi-pao(in that part of Ninghsia under Kansu provincial jurisdiction).A devotee of the vocal school,Ma Hua-lung predicted future events,cured illnesses,and helped those who wished to have an heir to have one'.His followers willingly underwent whipping upon confession of wrongdoing.Ma was said to have sent out deputies(hai-li-fei or khalifa)and teachers(man-la or mulla)to Urumchi in Sinkiang and even to K'uan-ch'eng-tzu in Manchuria.36 The Muslim revolt in Shensi and Kansu was,however,not just a religious movement.Like the revolt in Yunnan,the Tungan Rebellion was a large-scale community conflict -the coalescence of the persecuted mosque-centred communities for the purpose of survival.The revolt in Shensi was catalysed by a Taiping expedition into that province in April 1862,which reached the vicinity of Sian in mid-May.Stopped by the Ch'ing troops there,the Taipings moved rapidly eastward and entered Honan at the end of May,leaving the communities on both banks of the Wei River in turmoil.With official encouragement local armed corps were formed by the Han Chinese,and this effort was paralleled by the Muslims. In Wei-nan county a Muslim force,said to be 3,ooo strong,was organized by Hung Hsing,a Chinese Muslim who had served as a runner(ya-i)of the county yamen.7In late May,in nearby Hua-hsien,large-scale Han-Muslim conflict was set off by the Han Chinese burning a Muslim village.Armed feuds between Han and Muslim spread immediately along the Wei valley. After Chang Fei,the imperially appointed commissioner of local defence, was murdered by a Tungan leader,proclamations appeared declaring that all Muslims were 'to be killed without further inquiry'(o-sba wu-lm). Whether or not the proclamation was officially authorized,it pushed the Muslims towards an organized rebellion.8 Muslim tradition identifies the leaders of 'eighteen great battalions' (shib-pa fa-ying)in Shensi.At least three of the eighteen were akhunds 36 Shan Hua-p'u,'Shen-kan chieh-yu lu'(Legends of the Shensi-Kansu calamity)in HMCI, 4.311.Saguchi Toru,Jibacbi-jikyireiki,$59-79.Joseph Fletcher,'Central Asian Sufism and Ma Ming-hsin's New Teaching',in Chieh-hsien Ch'en,ed.Proceedings of tbe Fourtb Eart Arian Altairtic Conference,75-96.TWHK,Tsou-kao (Memorials),38.35b,63-4. 7 Chu Wen-ch'ang (Wen-Djang Chu),'Tan yu-kuan hsi-pei hui-luan ti liang-ko wen-t'i'(Two problems relating to the Muslim Rebellion in the north-west),Ch'ing-bua brueb-pao,Ns,5.I (1965)133-7,141, Tung-a chu-shih(pseud.),'Ch'in luan chien-wen chi'(Diary of what I saw and heard during the Shensi calamity),in Ma Hsiao-shih,Hsi-pei bui-ts ko-ming cbien-rbib(Brief history of the Muslim people's revolution in the north-west),93-6. Cambridge Histories Online O Cambridge University Press,2008
MUSLIM REVOLTS Z1J God) led to a revolt against the Ch'ing authorities. Defeated and executed, Ma was regarded as a saint (sheng-jeri) by his followers, who had to go underground. By the time the great Muslim Rebellion of Shensi-Kansu broke out in 1862, his mantle had descended to Ma Hua-lung, of Chin-chi-pao (in that part of Ninghsia under Kansu provincial jurisdiction). A devotee of the vocal school, Ma Hua-lung predicted future events, cured illnesses, and helped those who 'wished to have an heir to have one'. His followers willingly underwent whipping upon confession of wrongdoing. Ma was said to have sent out deputies {hai-li-fei or khalifa) and teachers (man-la or mulla) to Urumchi in Sinkiang and even to K'uan-ch'eng-tzu in Manchuria.36 The Muslim revolt in Shensi and Kansu was, however, not just a religious movement. Like the revolt in Yunnan, the Tungan Rebellion was a large-scale community conflict - the coalescence of the persecuted mosque-centred communities for the purpose of survival. The revolt in Shensi was catalysed by a Taiping expedition into that province in April 1862, which reached the vicinity of Sian in mid-May. Stopped by the Ch'ing troops there, the Taipings moved rapidly eastward and entered Honan at the end of May, leaving the communities on both banks of the Wei River in turmoil. With official encouragement local armed corps were formed by the Han Chinese, and this effort was paralleled by the Muslims. In Wei-nan county a Muslim force, said to be 3,000 strong, was organized by Hung Hsing, a Chinese Muslim who had served as a runner(j«-/) of the county yamen." In late May, in nearby Hua-hsien, large-scale Han-Muslim conflict was set off by the Han Chinese burning a Muslim village. Armed feuds between Han and Muslim spread immediately along the Wei valley. After Chang Fei, the imperially appointed commissioner of local defence, was murdered by a Tungan leader, proclamations appeared declaring that all Muslims were 'to be killed without further inquiry' {ko-sba wu-luri). Whether or not the proclamation was officially authorized, it pushed the Muslims towards an organized rebellion.38 Muslim tradition identifies the leaders of 'eighteen great battalions' (shib-pa ta-jing) in Shensi. At least three of the eighteen were akhunds 36 Shan Hua-p'u, 'Shen-kan chieh-yu Iu' (Legends of the Shensi-Kansu calamity) in HMCl, 4.311. Saguchi Toru, Jubacbi-jiikySseiki, 559-79. Joseph Fletcher, 'Central Asian Sufism and Ma Ming-hsin's New Teaching', in Chieh-hsien Ch'en, ed. Proceeding! of Ibe Fourth East Asian Altaislic Conference, 75-96. TW^HK, Tsou-kao (Memorials), 38.35b, 63-4. " Chu Wen-ch'ang (Wen-Djang Chu), "Fan yu-kuan hsi-pei hui-luan ti liang-ko wen-t'i' (Two problems relating to the Muslim Rebellion in the north-west), Cb'ing-bua bsueb-pao, NS, 5.1 (1965) 135-7, 141. 18 Tung-a chii-shih (pseud.), 'Ch'in luan chien-wen chi' (Diary of what I saw and heard during the Shensi calamity), in Ma Hsiao-shih, Hsi-pei bui-tsu ko-ming cbien-sbib (Brief history of the Muslim people's revolution in the north-west), 93-6. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
218 THE MILITARY CHALLENGE (religious leaders).The rebels initially developed three centres:one in the prosperous market towns near T'ung-chou,at the eastern end of the Wei valley;one north of Sian,and another further west around Feng-hsiang, towards the Kansu border.3 The rebels'early success was due to incredible Ch'ing weaknesses.Ying-ch'i,the Shensi governor,ensconced himself in Sian with Green Standard troops and local corps,but was unable to break a Muslim blockade that all but shut off the city's food supplies.In August 1862,Sheng-pao,notorious for his arranging the surrender of Miao P'ei-lin and other dissidents(see volume Io,chapter 9),was appointed imperial commissioner to rescue Sian.But Sheng-pao failed to arrange Muslim surrenders and his military inaction as well as gross corruption caused his removal in January 1863. The Ch'ing began to win only with the arrival of To-lung-a(1817-64)as imperial commissioner.Originally a Manchu banner officer,To-lung-a had, through the patronage of Hu Lin-i,risen to be a commander of the Hunan Army (the force under him being identified as the Ch'u-yung).40 In 1861, To-lung-a helped Tseng Kuo-ch'tan to recover Anking from the Taipings and,on his own,captured Lu-chou in 1862.His yimng-ying force proved to be equally effective against the Muslims.In March 1863,his battalions captured two market towns that formed the principal Tungan base in eastern Shensi.He broke the blockade around Sian in August and pursued the Muslims to western Shensi.By the time of his death in March 1864,in a battle against Szechwanese Taipings who invaded Shensi,he had broken the back of the Muslim Rebellion in that province.A great many Shensi Muslims had,however,escaped to Kansu,adding to the numerous Muslim forces which had already risen there. While the rebellion in Shensi was clearly provoked by Han gentry and officials,in Kansu it seems that the Muslims had taken the initiative,with the New Teaching group under Ma Hua-lung playing a large role.As early as October 1862,some Muslim leaders,spreading the word of an impend- ing Ch'ing massacre of Muslims,organized themselves for a siege of Ling-chou,a large city only forty-odd miles north of Ma Hua-lung's base, Chin-chi-pao.Meanwhile,in south-eastern Kansu,Ku-yuan,a strategic city athwart a principal transport route,was attacked by the Muslims. Governor-general En-lin,in Lanchow,saw no alternative to a policy of reconciliation.In January 1863,at his recommendation,Peking issued an edict especially for Kansu,reiterating the principle of nondiscrimination towards the Muslims.But as in Shensi,both Han and Muslim local corps 39 Shan Hua-p'u,'Shen-Kan',in HMCI,4.311-12. 40 Unless otherwise indicated,our summary of events in Shensi and Kansu relies on Wen- Djang Chu,The Moslem Rebellion in nortbwest China,1862-1878,and Kuo T'ing-i(Ting-yee Kuo),Chin-fai Chung-kso sbib-sbib jib-cbib (Chronology of events in modern Chinese history). Cambridge Histories Online O Cambridge University Press,2008
2l8 THE MILITARY CHALLENGE (religious leaders). The rebels initially developed three centres: one in the prosperous market towns near T'ung-chou, at the eastern end of the Wei valley; one north of Sian, and another further west around Feng-hsiang, towards the Kansu border. s« The rebels' early success was due to incredible Ch'ing weaknesses. Ying-ch'i, the Shensi governor, ensconced himself in Sian with Green Standard troops and local corps, but was unable to break a Muslim blockade that all but shut off the city's food supplies. In August 1862, Sheng-pao, notorious for his arranging the surrender of Miao P'ei-lin and other dissidents (see volume 10, chapter 9), was appointed imperial commissioner to rescue Sian. But Sheng-pao failed to arrange Muslim surrenders and his military inaction as well as gross corruption caused his removal in January 1863. The Ch'ing began to win only with the arrival of To-lung-a (1817-64) as imperial commissioner. Originally a Manchu banner officer, To-lung-a had, through the patronage of Hu Lin-i, risen to be a commander of the Hunan Army (the force under him being identified as the Ch'u-yung).40 In 1861, To-lung-a helped Tseng Kuo-ch'iian to recover Anking from the Taipings and, on his own, captured Lu-chou in 1862. Hisjtmg-ying force proved to be equally effective against the Muslims. In March 1863, his battalions captured two market towns that formed the principal Tungan base in eastern Shensi. He broke the blockade around Sian in August and pursued the Muslims to western Shensi. By the time of his death in March 1864, in a battle against Szechwanese Taipings who invaded Shensi, he had broken the back of the Muslim Rebellion in that province. A great many Shensi Muslims had, however, escaped to Kansu, adding to the numerous Muslim forces which had already risen there. While the rebellion in Shensi was clearly provoked by Han gentry and officials, in Kansu it seems that the Muslims had taken the initiative, with the New Teaching group under Ma Hua-lung playing a large role. As early as October 1862, some Muslim leaders, spreading the word of an impending Ch'ing massacre of Muslims, organized themselves for a siege of Ling-chou, a large city only forty-odd miles north of Ma Hua-lung's base, Chin-chi-pao. Meanwhile, in south-eastern Kansu, Ku-yuan, a strategic city athwart a principal transport route, was attacked by the Muslims. Governor-general En-lin, in Lanchow, saw no alternative to a policy of reconciliation. In January 1863, at his recommendation, Peking issued an edict especially for Kansu, reiterating the principle of nondiscrimination towards the Muslims. But as in Shensi, both Han and Muslim local corps " Shan Hua-p'u, 'Shen-Kan', in HMCI, 4.311-12. •° Unless otherwise indicated, our summary of events in Shensi and Kansu relies on Wen- Djang Chu, The Moslem Rebellion in northwest China, 1862-1878, and Kuo T'ing-i (Ting-yee Kuo), Cbin-tai Chung-kuo sbib-sbib jib-cbib (Chronology of events in modern Chinese history). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
MUSLIM REVOLTS 2I9 were multiplying and in conflict,and within four years all of Kansu,except for the provincial capital and a handful of other cities,had been occupied by Muslim forces. Ma Hua-lung's religious-military network was based in four areas: Chin-chi-pao itself;Hsi-ning in eastern Tsinghai where many of the Salar minority had been converted to the New Teaching;and two areas in southern Kansu-Ho-chou (close to Tsinghai)and Ch'in-an(not far from Shensi and near a New Teaching centre,Chang-chia-ch'uan).+An able Chinese intendant of the Ninghsia circuit,Hou Yun-teng,rallied enough Green Standard and banner troops as well as local corps to defend Ling- chou for a year.But in December 1863 Ma Hua-lung's troops,led by his son and other devotees of the New Teaching,occupied not only Ling-chou (where roo,ooo Han Chinese are said to have been massacred)but also the Chinese and Manchu cities of Ninghsia prefecture.Apparently at this time Ma assumed a Chinese-style title:Grand Marshal (ta fsimng-jumng)in Charge of Military Affairs of Ninghsia Prefecture,the Two Rivers and Other Areas'-the two rivers referring to the Yellow River and a major tributary. With this authority,Ma appointed the prefects and magistrates in the area under his control,but to his growing number of followers he was a sheng- jen(saint),with special ties to God and capable of wondrous acts. There were,of course,numerous rebel leaders in Kansu who did not adhere to the New Teaching.Out of more than seventy Muslim leaders who were active in Kansu between 186z and 1866 and whose names have appeared in historical studies,twenty have been identified as Ma Hua- lung's partisans.These included New Teachings missionaries as well as a number of middle-ranking officers of the Green Standard Army.Among the remainder,including elevenleaders who had recently come from Shensi, a number had allied themselves with Ma or received supplies from him. As compared with the Yunnan rebels,there were very few genuine turn- coats like Ma Ju-lung among the Shensi or Kansu Muslim leaders. Muslim surrenders often proved to be ruses.In mid-1864,Lei Cheng-kuan, a Hunan Army officer who had come with To-lung-a to Shensi and now fought in Kansu,captured both Ku-yuan and P'ing-liang,with the result that government highways were re-opened between the Wei River and western and central Kansu.Ho Ming-t'ang,a Shensi Muslim rebel and an akhund,surrendered to Lei,but in September when Shensi Muslims again See infer alia the petition of 1863 from gentry members of the Kansu-Ninghsia border to the throne through the Censorate,cited in Ma Hsiao-shih,Hri-pei bui-fru,34. Lo Cheng-chun,Tro Wen-briang kumng nien-p'u(Chronological biography of Tso Tsung-t'ang), 5.23.The tributary of the Yellow River is believed to be the Huang (Mathews'Chinere- Englitb Dictionary,no.2289),which links Hsi-ning in Tsinghai with south-western Kansu. The two works mentioned in n.4o above,and Ma Hsiao-shih,Hsi-pei bui-/ru. Cambridge Histories Online O Cambridge University Press,2008
MUSLIM REVOLTS 219 were multiplying and in conflict, and within four years all of Kansu, except for the provincial capital and a handful of other cities, had been occupied by Muslim forces. Ma Hua-lung's religious-military network was based in four areas: Chin-chi-pao itself; Hsi-ning in eastern Tsinghai where many of the Salar minority had been converted to the New Teaching; and two areas in southern Kansu - Ho-chou (close to Tsinghai) and Ch'in-an (not far from Shensi and near a New Teaching centre, Chang-chia-ch'uan).41 An able Chinese intendant of the Ninghsia circuit, Hou Yun-teng, rallied enough Green Standard and banner troops as well as local corps to defend Lingchou for a year. But in December 1863 Ma Hua-lung's troops, led by his son and other devotees of the New Teaching, occupied not only Ling-chou (where 100,000 Han Chinese are said to have been massacred) but also the Chinese and Manchu cities of Ninghsia prefecture. Apparently at this time Ma assumed a Chinese-style title: 'Grand Marshal (ia tsimg-jung) in Charge of Military Affairs of Ninghsia Prefecture, the Two Rivers and Other Areas' - the two rivers referring to the Yellow River and a maj or tributary.4 * With this authority, Ma appointed the prefects and magistrates in the area under his control, but to his growing number of followers he was a shengjen (saint), with special ties to God and capable of wondrous acts. There were, of course, numerous rebel leaders in Kansu who did not adhere to the New Teaching. Out of more than seventy Muslim leaders who were active in Kansu between 1862 and 1866 and whose names have appeared in historical studies,43 twenty have been identified as Ma Hualung's partisans. These included New Teachings missionaries as well as a number of middle-ranking officers of the Green Standard Army. Among the remainder, including eleven leaders who had recently come from Shensi, a number had allied themselves with Ma or received supplies from him. As compared with the Yunnan rebels, there were very few genuine turncoats like Ma Ju-lung among the Shensi or Kansu Muslim leaders. Muslim surrenders often proved to be ruses. In mid-1864, Lei Cheng-kuan, a Hunan Army officer who had come with To-lung-a to Shensi and now fought in Kansu, captured both Ku-yuan and P'ing-liang, with the result that government highways were re-opened between the Wei River and western and central Kansu. Ho Ming-t'ang, a Shensi Muslim rebel and an akhund, surrendered to Lei, but in September when Shensi Muslims again 4 1 See inter alia the petition of 1863 from gentry members of the Kansu-Ninghsia border to the throne through the Censorate, cited in Ma Hsiao-shih, Hti-pei hui-tiu, 34. 4 2 Lo Cheng-chun, Tso Wen-bsiang ktmg nien-p'u (Chronological biography of Tso Tsung-t'ang), 5.23. The tributary of the Yellow River is believed to be the Huang (Mathews' ChineseEnglish Dictionary, no. 2289), which links Hsi-ning in Tsinghai with south-western Kansu. 4 J The two works mentioned in n. 40 above, and Ma Hsiao-shih, Hsi-pei bui-tsu. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
220 THE MILITARY CHALLENGE besieged Ku-yuan,Ho arranged to have the city gates opened from within,allowing his co-religionists to win(and incidentally to drive out a faction of Kansu Muslims who had also capitulated to Lei).An extant Muslim document relates that before every battle Ho would read from scripture and pray aloud:We rely on the Lord;we protect our religion as we go into battle,always with the help of the True Lord.'+In February 1865 Ku-yuan was lost again to the Ch'ing forces but Shensi rebels,under Ho,won it back in October-along with cities south-eastward to the Shensi border. Without the aid of a genuine and powerful turncoat,the Ch'ing officials resorted to arranging 'surrenders'that actually left the territory in the hands of the rebels.The major case is that of Ma Hua-lung himself.In 1864-5,Peking directed two of its best Manchu commanders to attack Ma's base at the Kansu-Ninghsia border.The commanders were Tu- hsing-a,who was given principal charge of the campaigns in Kansu,and Mu-t'u-shan,formerly a cavalry officer under To-lung-a but now the Ninghsia general-in-chief.Year-long sieges of the two cities of Ninghsia prefecture were not successful and Mu-t'u-shan favoured accepting the proposals for peace put forward by Ma Hua-lung's lieutenants.Only after Tu-hsing-a,who adamantly opposed the idea,was transferred to be general-in-chief in Mukden did Mu-t'u-shan carry out his policy of accommodating Ma Hua-lung.Ma turned over to the Ch'ing forces 26 cannon,more than 1,ooo foreign arms(yang-cb'iang),and more than 10,o00 swords and spears.In return,Mu-t'u-shan memorialized the throne to clear Ma of his record as a rebel:'Ma Hua-lung is very much trusted by the Muslims in Kansu.If he should be sent out to different places to try to persuade the Muslims,...they everywhere would surrender without a fight.'+s An edict of May 1866 approved Ma's surrender and Ma even adopted a new loyalist name,Ma Ch'ao-ch'ing.He continued,however,to consolidate and expand his influence,without having to worry about Ch'ing attacks. Meanwhile,effective Ch'ing rule in Kansu was collapsing.The Muslim revolt spread to the Kansu panhandle west of the Yellow River.In February 1865,a Muslim Green Standard officer in Liang-chou (now Wu-wei)crushed a rebellion and gained control of the city,and in March there were Muslim riots at Yu-men ('The Jade Gate"),which soon spread to An-hsi farther to the north-west.Kansu Muslims briefly took over strategic Su-chou in April and succeeded more permanently in December. 44'Chi-shih'(Journal of events;fragment originally written in sinicized Arabic,translated by P'ang Shih-ch'ien into Chinese),in HMCI,3.240 and plate facing p.I. 4s Cited in Chu,The Morlem Rebellion,64. Cambridge Histories Online O Cambridge University Press,2008
22O THE MILITARY CHALLENGE besieged Ku-yuan, Ho arranged to have the city gates opened from within, allowing his co-religionists to win (and incidentally to drive out a faction of Kansu Muslims who had also capitulated to Lei). An extant Muslim document relates that before every battle Ho would read from scripture and pray aloud: 'We rely on the Lord; we protect our religion as we go into battle, always with the help of the True Lord.'44 In February 1865 Ku-yuan was lost again to the Ch'ing forces but Shensi rebels, under Ho, won it back in October - along with cities south-eastward to the Shensi border. Without the aid of a genuine and powerful turncoat, the Ch'ing officials resorted to arranging 'surrenders' that actually left the territory in the hands of the rebels. The major case is that of Ma Hua-lung himself. In 1864-5 > Peking directed two of its best Manchu commanders to attack Ma's base at the Kansu-Ninghsia border. The commanders were Tuhsing-a, who was given principal charge of the campaigns in Kansu, and Mu-t'u-shan, formerly a cavalry officer under To-lung-a but now the Ninghsia general-in-chief. Year-long sieges of the two cities of Ninghsia prefecture were not successful and Mu-t'u-shan favoured accepting the proposals for peace put forward by Ma Hua-lung's lieutenants. Only after Tu-hsing-a, who adamantly opposed the idea, was transferred to be general-in-chief in Mukden did Mu-t'u-shan carry out his policy of accommodating Ma Hua-lung. Ma turned over to the Ch'ing forces 26 cannon, more than 1,000 foreign 2.tms(jang-ch'iang), and more than 10,000 swords and spears. In return, Mu-t'u-shan memorialized the throne to clear Ma of his record as a rebel: 'Ma Hua-lung is very much trusted by the Muslims in Kansu. If he should be sent out to different places to try to persuade the Muslims, . .. they everywhere would surrender without a fight.'4s An edict of May 1866 approved Ma's surrender and Ma even adopted a new loyalist name, Ma Ch'ao-ch'ing. He continued, however, to consolidate and expand his influence, without having to worry about Ch'ing attacks. Meanwhile, effective Ch'ing rule in Kansu was collapsing. The Muslim revolt spread to the Kansu panhandle west of the Yellow River. In February 1865, a Muslim Green Standard officer in Liang-chou (now Wu-wei) crushed a rebellion and gained control of the city, and in March there were Muslim riots at Yii-men ('The Jade Gate'), which soon spread to An-hsi farther to the north-west. Kansu Muslims briefly took over strategic Su-chou in April and succeeded more permanently in December. 44 'Chi-shih' (Journal of events; fragment originally written in sinicized Arabic, translated by P'ang Shih-ch'ien into Chinese), in HMCI, 3.240 and plate facing p. 1. « Cited in Chu, Tie Mot/em Rebellion, 64. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
MUSLIM REVOLTS 22I Some Muslims had returned to Shensi and that province was again in danger.Meanwhile,Sinkiang,which had felt the impact of the events in Shensi and Kansu as early as 1863,was in the throes of numerous revolts in its several regions and of invasion from beyond the Ch'ing empire's boundaries. Sinkiang In Sinkiang,the rebellious message from Chinese Muslims touched off a variety of reactions-as diverse as the area was ethnically and linguistically, and as segmented as its geography and historical tradition.Ch'ing admini- stration there had many weaknesses,and until 1860 the dynasty was barely able to maintain order in Altishahr against the periodic jihad (holy war)of the Afagi khojas and their Turkic-speaking followers (see volume io, chapters 2 and 8).Han Chinese migration into Sinkiang had been increas- ing,but this development,too,added to the potential for conflict:the Chinese settlers,whether Muslim or non-Muslim,constituted a minority in the view of the Turkic-speaking inhabitants and could,moreover, become subversive against Sinkiang's Ch'ing rulers.In this most north- western territory of the Ch'ing empire,Chinese and non-Chinese had also to confront the emergence of Russia as the dominant factor in Central Asian trade and politics.Meanwhile Sinkiang,in those days when new mountain passes through the Pamirs and Karakoram were still being eagerly explored,was considered by British India to be all too close to its northern frontier.6 News of the Muslim revolt in China proper may have prompted as early as March 1863 a Muslim uprising in the Ili region,which the Ch'ing troops were able to put down very rapidly.In May of that year,fighting broke out between Muslims and Han Chinese in Khitai,in north-eastern Sinkiang,where Han farmers and traders were numerous and where the Ch'ing authorities,who encouraged the new settlers,had been heavy- handed in taxing the Muslims.In June,a separate revolt began at Kucha, in northern Altishahr,under the leadership of Rashidin Khoja-no relative of the Makhdumzada khojas.The revolt spread as far east as Karashahr and in the west approached Kashgar.Rashidin Khoja established his capital at Aksu and adopted the title of King of Turkestan.But in July,in Yarkand,where the Rashidin lineage did not command respect,a local rebel seized power over the city.In quick succession,a beg(native official) 46 Our study of Islam in China and particularly of events in Sinkiang has benefited immensely from the manuscript of Professor Joseph Fletcher's current historical survey of Ch'ing Inner Asia.We are also grateful to Professor Lanny Bruce Fields of the State University of New York at Albany for insights gained from his Tro Trng-I'ang and the Muslims:statecroft in nortbwert China,1868-1880. Cambridge Histories Online O Cambridge University Press,2008
MUSLIM REVOLTS 221 Some Muslims had returned to Shensi and that province was again indanger. Meanwhile, Sinkiang, which had felt the impact of the events in Shensi and Kansu as early as 1863, was in the throes of numerous revolts in its several regions and of invasion from beyond the Ch'ing empire's boundaries. Sinkiang In Sinkiang, the rebellious message from Chinese Muslims touched off a variety of reactions - as diverse as the area was ethnically and linguistically, and as segmented as its geography and historical tradition. Ch'ing administration there had many weaknesses, and until i860 the dynasty was barely able to maintain order in Altishahr against the periodic jihad (holy war) of the Afaqi khojas and their Turkic-speaking followers (see volume 10, chapters 2 and 8). Han Chinese migration into Sinkiang had been increasing, but this development, too, added to the potential for conflict: the Chinese settlers, whether Muslim or non-Muslim, constituted a minority in the view of the Turkic-speaking inhabitants and could, moreover, become subversive against Sinkiang's Ch'ing rulers. In this most northwestern territory of the Ch'ing empire, Chinese and non-Chinese had also to confront the emergence of Russia as the dominant factor in Central Asian trade and politics. Meanwhile Sinkiang, in those days when new mountain passes through the Pamirs and Karakoram were still being eagerly explored, was considered by British India to be all too close to its northern frontier.46 News of the Muslim revolt in China proper may have prompted as early as March 1863 a Muslim uprising in the Hi region, which the Ch'ing troops were able to put down very rapidly. In May of that year, fighting broke out between Muslims and Han Chinese in Khitai, in north-eastern Sinkiang, where Han farmers and traders were numerous and where the Ch'ing authorities, who encouraged the new settlers, had been heavyhanded in taxing the Muslims. In June, a separate revolt began at Kucha, in northern Altishahr, under the leadership of Rashidin Khoja - no relative of the Makhdumzada khojas. The revolt spread as far east as Karashahr and in the west approached Kashgar. Rashidin Khoja established his capital at Aksu and adopted the title of King of Turkestan. But in July, in Yarkand, where the Rashidin lineage did not command respect, a local rebel seized power over the city. In quick succession, a beg (native official) 46 Our study of Islam in China and particularly of events in Sinkiang has benefited immensely from the manuscript of Professor Joseph Fletcher's current historical survey of Ch'ing Inner Asia. We are also grateful to Professor Lanny Bruce Fields of the State University of New York at Albany for insights gained from his Tso Tsung-t'ang and the Muslims: statecraft in northwest China, 186S-1SS0. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008