STATE OF THE WORLD's FORESTs 2003 Management conservation and sustainable development of forests A s forests are complex ecosystems requiring which the unique role of forests is recognized, balanced and sustainable management, one partnerships between and among countries from of the main challenges today is to reconcile the the north and the South are the basis on which often conflicting priorities of those who depend on Joint Implementation and the Clean Development them for a whole range of goods and services. It is Mechanism are built. also necessary to take into account the ways in which forests affect and are affected by policies ROLE OF PLANTED TREES IN outside the forest sector. Such a comprehensive DEVELOPING COUNTRIES WITH LOW pproach requires innovative partnerships and FOREST COVER: FINDINGS FROM SIX better linkages at all levels and across sectors. CASE STUDIES Indeed, this imperative has never been greater, as Deforestation and forest degradation, coupled demonstrated by the examples in this chapter. with difficult ecological conditions in several parts A summary of six case studies in developing of the world, have seriously reduced forest cover countries with low forest cover shows that in many countries. The situation is exacerbated various government departments, organizations where low rainfall slows regeneration and and other interested parties need to work reforestation and where forest land is subject to together to resolve issues related to planted trees pressures from shifting cultivation,livestock in arid and semi-arid zones, in urban as well as grazing and the uncontrolled gathering of rural areas. In 2002 the International Year of fuelwood In developing countries, natural and Mountains drew attention to the contributions planted forest land is critical to rural that mountain forests make to hundreds of communities, and the loss of forest productivity millions of people, and the forestry community and biological diversity is a serious threat to welcomed a new international alliance for livelihoods and the quality of life. sustainable mountain development. The chapter FAOs Global Forest resources assessment 2000 also highlights integrated management plans for (FRA2000)estimated that 56 countries arelow forests in the Mediterranean basin, which have forest cover countries(LFCCs), having less than 10 long called for the involvement of stakeholders in percent of their area classified as forest(Table 4) their development and implementation. Forest In contrast, the global forest area is almost 30 fire management around the world also requires percent of total land area(FAO, 2001a). LFCCs, collaborative approaches, and international which are found primarily in arid and semi-arid interest in coordinating responses and sharing zones of Africa and the Near East, often reflect personnel and equipment in emergency situations severe ecological degradation that directly affects is growing. Solutions to unsustainable hunting in peoples lives. The LFCCs have a total land area of tropical forests, especially in Africa, are being 2 726 million hectars and a total population of sought through a number of collaborative about 900 million, of which 64 percent lives in arrangements. Lastly, in the context of Asia. Of these 56 countries, only 13 have more international agreements on climate change, in than 0.1 ha of foest per capita.However,low
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 12 ,Management and conservation sustainable forests of development requiring ecosystems complex are forests As one, management sustainable and balanced the reconcile to is today challenges main the of on depend who those of priorities conflicting often is It. services and goods of range whole a for them in ways the account into take to necessary also policies by affected are and affect forests which comprehensive a Such. sector forest the outside and partnerships innovative requires approach .sectors across and levels all at linkages better as, greater been never has imperative this, Indeed .chapter this in examples the by demonstrated developing in studies case six of summary A that shows cover forest low with countries organizations, departments government various work to need parties interested other and trees planted to related issues resolve to together as well as urban in, zones arid-semi and arid in of Year International the, 2002 In. areas rural contributions the to attention drew Mountains of hundreds to make forests mountain that community forestry the and, people of millions for alliance international new a welcomed chapter The. development mountain sustainable for plans management integrated highlights also have which, basin Mediterranean the in forests in stakeholders of involvement the for called long Forest. implementation and development their requires also world the around management fire international and, approaches collaborative sharing and responses coordinating in interest situations emergency in equipment and personnel in hunting unsustainable to Solutions. growing is being are, Africa in especially, forests tropical collaborative of number a through sought of context the in, Lastly. arrangements in, change climate on agreements international ,recognized is forests of role unique the which from countries among and between partnerships which on basis the are South the and North the Development Clean the and Implementation Joint .built are Mechanism IN TREES PLANTED OF ROLE LOW WITH COUNTRIES DEVELOPING SIX FROM FINDINGS: COVER FOREST STUDIES CASE coupled, degradation forest and Deforestation parts several in conditions ecological difficult with cover forest reduced seriously have, world the of exacerbated is situation The. countries many in and regeneration slows rainfall low where to subject is land forest where and reforestation livestock, cultivation shifting from pressures of gathering uncontrolled the and grazing and natural, countries developing In. fuelwood rural to critical is land forest planted productivity forest of loss the and, communities to threat serious a is diversity biological and .life of quality the and livelihoods 2000 Assessment Resources Forest Global s’FAO low are countries 56 that estimated) 2000 FRA( 10 than less having), LFCCs (countries cover forest .(4 Table (forest as classified area their of percent 30 almost is area forest global the, contrast In ,LFCCs). 2001a, FAO (area land total of percent arid-semi and arid in primarily found are which reflect often, East Near the and Africa of zones affects directly that degradation ecological severe of area land total a have LFCCs The. lives s’people of population total a and hectares million 726 2 in lives percent 64 which of, million 900 about more have 13 only, countries 56 these Of. Asia low, However. capita per forest of ha 1.0 than
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR forest cover does not always coincide with watersheds. In addition, their rural populations country borders, so the problem might be more depend on trees for fuel, poles, construction wood widespread. In addition, some countries, such as and a range of non-wood forest products China, have more than 10 percent forest cover yet (NWFPs)such as fodder, food and medicine. In a low area of forest per person. In LFCCs in Africa, Asia and the Near East, producing industrial wood, so it is nearly planted forests account for only a small impossible to fund development of the sector proportion of the forest cover. Algeria, from the sale of wood Bangladesh, Ireland, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Morocco, Pakistan, South Africa and Case studies Uruguay are the only countries with more than In 2002, regional workshops were held in the 500 000 ha of planted feats and trees, whereas Near East (Iran)and Africa(Kenya)to develop half the countries have less than 10 000 ha. Most strategies, action plans and proposals to enhance tree planting programmes were started between the role of planted forests and trees outside 1960 and 1980, although in Denmark, Ethiopia forests in LFCCs In preparation for the and South Africa large-scale efforts began earlier. workshops, visiting FAO teams undertook case The annual new planting rate is substantially studies in six countries in Africa and the Near igher in Asia and the Near East than in Africa, East: Ethiopia, Iran, Mali, Namibia, Oman and but there is considerable variation among Tunisia. The case studies( to be published in countries. Only ten of the developing countries 2003 )focused on countries where problems were plant 10 000 ha or meter year the most serious because of dry climate and low Many LFCCs in the developing world, forest cover. Ethiopia, Iran and Mali are particularly those in arid zones, rely on trees to representative of large countries, Namibia is prevent erosion, halt desertification and protect medium-sized, and Oman and Tunisia are biological diversity, crops, settlements and relatively small. Ethiopia is densely populated, TABLE 4 Estimated planted forest areas and annual planting rates in low forest cover countries, by region Number of Total land area Total forest. forest cover Planted forests Annual planting 000ha ( of total Africa 1407 55985 123 Americas 2726 3.9 10315 b Forest land is defined as having more than 10 percent crown cover and an area of more than 0.5 ha, and excludes land predominantly used for agriculture. Planted forests do not include plantations of less than 0.5 ha in area or less than 20 m in width, and thus some agroforestry plantings and trees outside forests ludes the Near East. Asia and the pacific Source: FAO. 2001 a
13 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART with coincide always not does cover forest more be might problem the so, borders country as such, countries some, addition In. widespread yet cover forest percent 10 than more have, China .person per forest of area low a ,East Near the and Asia, Africa in LFCCs In small a only for account forests planted ,Algeria. cover forest the of proportion of Republic Islamic the, Ireland, Bangladesh and Africa South, Pakistan, Morocco, Iran than more with countries only the are Uruguay whereas, trees and ests for planted of ha 000 500 Most. ha 000 10 than less have countries the half between started were programmes planting tree Ethiopia, Denmark in although, 1980 and 1960 .earlier began efforts scale-large Africa South and substantially is rate planting new annual The ,Africa in than East Near the and Asia in higher among variation considerable is there but countries developing the of ten Only. countries .year per e mor or ha 000 10 plant ,world developing the in LFCCs Many to trees on rely, zones arid in those particularly protect and desertification halt, erosion prevent and settlements, crops, diversity biological populations rural their, addition In. watersheds wood construction, poles, fuel for trees on depend products forest wood-non of range a and In. medicine and food, fodder as such) NWFPs( for potential little is there, countries these nearly is it so, wood industrial producing sector the of development fund to impossible .wood of sale the from studies Case the in held were workshops regional, 2002 In develop to) Kenya (Africa and) Iran (East Near enhance to proposals and plans action, strategies outside trees and forests planted of role the the for preparation In. LFCCs in forests case undertook teams FAO visiting, workshops Near the and Africa in countries six in studies and Oman, Namibia, Mali, Iran, Ethiopia: East in published be to (studies case The. Tunisia were problems where countries on focused) 2003 low and climate dry of because serious most the are Mali and Iran, Ethiopia. cover forest is Namibia, countries large of representative are Tunisia and Oman and, sized-medium ,populated densely is Ethiopia. small relatively planting Annual forestsc Planted cover forest % forestb Total area land Total of Number Region (ha 000) (’ha 000) (’ha million (countries total of) (% ha 000(’ (area forest 85 7.6 739 3 0.4 985 55 407 1 20 Africa 141 8.10 976 4 7.3 067 46 238 1 27 Oceaniad and Asia 53 6.43 656 7.2 503 1 57 5 Americas e.a.n 2.64 944 0.6 470 1 24 4 Europe 8.9 315 10 9.3 025 105 726 2 56 Total a .forest under area land their of percent 10 than less with countries those as defined are countries cover forest Low c. agriculture for used predominantly land excludes and, ha 5.0 than more of area an and cover crown percent 10 than more having as defined is land Forest b forests outside trees and plantings agroforestry some thus and, width in m 20 than less or area in ha 5.0 than less of plantations include not do forests Planted .excluded are d .Pacific the and Asia, East Near the Includes e .available Not .2001a, FAO: Source 4 TABLE regiona by, countries cover forest low in rates planting annual and areas forest planted Estimated
STATE OF THE WORLDs FORESTs 2003 very rural and very poor. At the other extreme, major land use. Rural populations rely on forests Oman is largely urban and the people are and woodlands for energy and fodder rather than wealthier. Arid and semi-arid climates dominate, for timber. These resources are also important for although different types of climate do exist poles, craft materials, shade and NWFPs such as within each country. All the countries have fruits and medicine. In addition, they support deserts, and animal herding on rangeland is wildlife, hunting and tourism, and are rich in more common than agriculture Each case study outlined the causes and effects of forest degradation, described lessons and Forest resources assessment data. The lack of proposed strategies and methodologies to reliable data on natural and planted forests, address issues. This section summarizes the main except in Tunisia, poses a significant constraint to findings and observations(Table 5) formulating and implementing national fores policies and plans, and to monitoring and Findings: common features and issues reporting current conditions and trends. Until Environmental degradation. Although not always data are improved analysis of future scenarios well documented, the six countries studied had may not provide a true assessment of the all experienced substantial deforestation, forest potential of planted forests and soil degradation and an increase in the area of bare land over the years. The need f Change in forest cover. Tunisia was the only fuelwood and grazing is the main cause of forest country to increase its forest cover(+0. 2 percent) degradation, frequently leading to loss of forest between 1990 and 2000(FAO, 2001a). The annual cover and biological diversity, erosion, loss in Ethiopia, Mali and Namibia was 0.7 to 0.9 desertification and reduced water resources. The percent, while in Iran and Oman there was no is especially serious in the countries substantial change Except possibly in Tunisia and with large rural populations and high birth rates Iran, natural forests were under serious threat. In (Ethiopia, Mali and Namibia). In all the countries this regard, the studies noted the need to conserve except Oman, the herding of animals on and protect representative samples of natural rangelands that are often partly forested is a ecosystems and unique forest types TAblE 5 Data for the six low forest cover countries studied ountry 二 Planted Population Rural GNP (%) (000ha) (000ha/ per km? population per capita (1997Uss) 1104304593 216 112 Arid to temperate 2284 39 1 581 Continental/arid 1220191318 59 Arid to semi-arid Namibia 823298040 2 196 Arid to semi-arid Oman 2124 Tunisia 16362 5103.1 +0.2 202 60.9 35 2 092 Mediterranean ource: FAO, 2001a and FAO, country case studies(in preparation)
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 14 ,extreme other the At. poor very and rural very are people the and urban largely is Oman ,dominate climates arid-semi and Arid. wealthier exist do climate of types different although have countries the All. country each within is rangeland on herding animal and, deserts .agriculture than common more effects and causes the outlined study case Each and lessons described, degradation forest of to methodologies and strategies proposed main the summarizes section This. issues address .(5 Table (observations and findings issues and features common: Findings always not Although. degradation Environmental had studied countries six the, documented well forest, deforestation substantial experienced all area the in increase an and degradation soil and for need The. years the over land bare of forest of cause main the is grazing and fuelwood forest of loss to leading frequently, degradation ,erosion, diversity biological and cover The. resources water reduced and desertification countries the in serious especially is situation rates birth high and populations rural large with countries the all In). Namibia and Mali, Ethiopia( on animals of herding the, Oman except a is forested partly often are that rangelands Predominant GNP Rural Population Planted forest Annual Forest Total Land Country climate capita per population km2 per forest change cover (%) forest area ($US 1997) (%) (ha 000) (’ha 000) (’ha 000(’ (%) (ha 000(’ temperate to Arid 112 83 1.61 216 8.0 -40 -2.4 593 4 430 110 Ethiopia arid/Continental 581 1 39 2.41 284 2. - s.n 5.4 299 7 201 162 Iran arid-semi to Arid 259 71 0.9 15 7.0 -99 -8.10 186 13 019 122 Mali arid-semi to Arid 196 2 60 1.2 3.0 9.0 -73 -8.9 040 8 329 82 Namibia arid Primarily 500 9 18 6.11 1. - s.n 0 1 246 21 Oman Mediterranean 092 2 35 9.60 202 2.0 +1 +1.3 510 362 16 Tunisia .significant not. = s.n .(preparation in (studies case country, FAO and 2001a, FAO: Source forests on rely populations Rural. use land major than rather fodder and energy for woodlands and for important also are resources These. timber for as such NWFPs and shade, materials craft, poles support they, addition In. medicine and fruits in rich are and, tourism and hunting, wildlife .diversity biological of lack The. data assessment resources Forest ,forests planted and natural on data reliable to constraint significant a poses, Tunisia in except forest national implementing and formulating and monitoring to and, plans and policies Until. trends and conditions current reporting scenarios future of analysis, improved are data the of assessment true a provide not may .forests planted of potential only the was Tunisia. cover forest in Change (percent 2.0 (+ cover forest its increase to country annual The). 2001a, FAO (2000 and 1990 between 9.0 to 7.0 was Namibia and Mali, Ethiopia in loss no was there Oman and Iran in while, percent and Tunisia in possibly Except. change substantial In. threat serious under were forests natural, Iran conserve to need the noted studies the, regard this natural of samples representative protect and .types forest unique and ecosystems 5 TABLE studied countries cover forest low six the for Data
PART I THE SITUATION AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 15 Millet cultivation tnder Acacia albida in Mali's parkland agroforestry-the trees improve nutrient cycling and fodder, pods and shade for animals Role and extent of planted forests. The areas of planted forests in Ethiopia, Mali, Namibia and Oman are small compared with the size and needs of these countries Both farmers and the public sector plant forests for non- industrial uses, primarily fuelwood and poles, but the survival and productivity of the Between 1986 and 2000, Malis trees are often low. While the current expansion of agrosilvicultural and silvipastoral activities planted forests is about 2 000 and 700 ha per year consisted of the planting of 4 000 km of in Ethiopia and Mali, respectively (RO, 2001a), it shelterbelts, 14 000 ha of woodlots and 5 000 ha does not compensate for the loss of natural around water points and in pastures. Mali is also forests noted for its parkland agroforestry based on In Tunisia, the loss of forest area has largely natural trees, a formation that covers 39 percent stabilized as a result of forest planting, other land of the country. In traditional Sahelian parklands management changes and a decreasing rural millet and sorghum are often grown with Acacia population. The difficulty in distinguishing albida On these infertile soils, production of between planted and natural forests for some rops grown within a 5-to 10-m radius of the native species and the lack of a recent inventory trees has doubled or trebled over that of crops mean that the total area of planted forests is not grown in the open, because of improved nutrient known. However, the annual planting rate is cycling and a changed microclimate. In addition estimated at about 14 000 ha to increasing crop yields, the trees provide Planted forests in Iran cover 2.3 million hectares fuelwood, fodder, pods and shade for animals and are expanding at 63 000 ha per yeaFhey luring the dry season. There are also extensive include a wide variety of indigenous and areas of other parkland systems in Mali where introduced hardwood species. Industrial indigenous trees such as karite( vitellaria purposes account for about 10 percent of the total, paradoxa) produce oil, while Acacia senegal with the remainder used for environmental produces gum arabic. protection, soil stabilization, fuelwood and poles. Namibia has similar parkland systems. In the As a result of the government's promotion of fast- north, where most people live, trees that produce growing industrial planted forests, the area of fruits, oils, nuts, medicinal products or craft poplar plantations is estimated at between 110 000 materials also improve soil fertility or provide and150000ha{O,200a) shade, and are therefore often left standing in agricultural fields. Law and customary practice Role of trees outside forests. Trees outside acknowledge their importance, imposing forests take a variety of forms, with agroforestry, penalties and fines on people who cut them village and urban plantings, roadside plantings down. In addition, shade and fruit trees are and orchards being the most widespread planted around homesteads and farm woodlots
15 SECTOR FOREST THE IN DEVELOPMENTS AND SITUATION THE I PART The. forests planted of extent and Role ,Ethiopia in forests planted of areas small are Oman and Namibia, Mali of needs and size the with compared the and farmers Both. countries these and fuelwood primarily, uses industrialnon for forests plant sector public the of productivity and survival the but, poles of expansion current the While. low often are trees year per ha 700 and 000 2 about is forests planted it), 2001a, FAO (respectively, Mali and Ethiopia in natural of loss the for compensate not does .forests largely has area forest of loss the, Tunisia In land other, planting forest of result a as stabilized rural decreasing a and changes management distinguishing in difficulty The. population some for forests natural and planted between inventory recent a of lack the and species native not is forests planted of area total the that mean is rate planting annual the, However. known .ha 000 14 about at estimated hectares million 3.2 cover Iran in forests Planted They . year per ha 000 63 at expanding are and and indigenous of variety wide a include Industrial. species hardwood introduced ,total the of percent 10 about for account purposes environmental for used remainder the with .poles and fuelwood, stabilization soil, protection of area the, forests planted industrial growingfast of promotion s’government the of result a As 000 110 between at estimated is plantations poplar .(2000a, FAO (ha 000 150 and outside Trees. forests outside trees of Role ,agroforestry with, forms of variety a take forests plantings roadside, plantings urban and village .widespread most the being orchards and s’Mali, 2000 and 1986 Between activities silvipastoral and agrosilvicultural of km 000 4 of planting the of consisted ha 000 5 and woodlots of ha 000 14, shelterbelts also is Mali. pastures in and points water around on based agroforestry parkland its for noted percent 39 covers that formation a, trees natural ,parklands Sahelian traditional In. country the of Acacia with grown often are sorghum and millet of production, soils infertile these On. albida the of radius m-10 to- 5 a within grown crops crops of that over trebled or doubled has trees nutrient improved of because, open the in grown addition In. microclimate changed a and cycling provide trees the, yields crop increasing to animals for shade and pods, fodder, fuelwood extensive also are There. season dry the during where Mali in systems parkland other of areas Vitellaria (karité as such trees indigenous senegal Acacia while, oil produce) paradoxa .arabic gum produces the In. systems parkland similar has Namibia produce that trees, live people most where, north craft or products medicinal, nuts, oils, fruits provide or fertility soil improve also materials in standing left often therefore are and, shade practice customary and Law. fields agricultural imposing, importance their acknowledge them cut who people on fines and penalties are trees fruit and shade, addition In. down woodlots farm and homesteads around planted albida Acacia under cultivation Millet the – agroforestry parkland s’Mali in and cycling nutrient improve trees crop increasing, microclimate alter ,fuelwood providing while production animals for shade and pods, fodder FAIDUTTI. R/15859/FAO
STATE OF THE WORLDs FORESTs 2003 and as living fences. The Directorate of Forestry is around Tunis, creating parks, lining boulevards currently promoting tree planting in woodlots. and motorways, planting coastal esplanades and In Tunisia, agroforestry practices include the implementing a national programme for planting of Acacia, Atriplex and Medicago species heritage trees for browse and forage within and beyond forest In Mali, about 22 000 ha of plantations have areas, and the planting of windbreaks, which been established in villages and urban areas were protecting around one-eighth of irrigated since 1986, and there has been additional agricultural land by 2000. Emphasis is also being planting along roadways. Iran has been active placed on planting multipurpose species(such as well, with a network of urban and peri-urban walnut, pistachio, pecan, hazel and carob ), planted forests and parks. Often, however, particularly in mountainous areas and in forest problems arise when irrigation cannot be sustained in the long term because of water urban centres relieves pressure on natural forests cities is therefore seen as an opportunity for Establishing woodlots in villages and near shortages. The use of treated wastewater fror for fuelwood, poles and fodder In cities, tree urban and peri-urban tree planting in several planting is stressed for aesthetic and recreational countries benefits. While urban, peri-urban and roadside planting is promoted in all the countries studied, Combating desertification Combating Tunisia has perhaps been the most active desertification is a major objective for all the Initiatives include establishing a green belt countries, with Iran and Tunisia seeming to make the most progress. Iran has established 140 desertification control stations since 1963. Now after 40 years of concerted effort, it reports that it Planting trees enhances urban environments ntrolled one-fifth of its seriously affecte lands. In Tunisia, 17 200 ha of planted fests were established to fix dunes between 1990 and 1999, with an additional 5 700 ha planted as windbreaks and shelterbelts In the next three decades, rapid urban population growth will become a major issue, possibly affecting more than 50 percent of Institutional capacity and national planting the African and Asian population and 75 to 80 percent of people plans. Problems of poor records and living in Central and South America(FAO, 1999a). This fast expan- underfunded government institutions without sion, often on erosion-prone hillsides or in swampy areas, means clear strategies to address forest issues were that most settlers live in poor conditions and face food insecurity, particularly noticeable in Ethiopia and Oman lack of clean drinking-water, inadequate energy for domestic use, Tunisia, on the other hand, is aiming to plant 70 shortage of construction materials, air pollution and unsanitary million trees annually, and Iran also has a major disposal of waste and sewage planting programme. Namibia, independent only Since the quality of the urban environment is closely linked to since 1990, has developed bold forest policies and the economic and social legislation advocating tree planting and amenity brings several benefits, with beautification stimulating recognizing the role of forests and woodlands outside investment, business development and, hence, employ- Mali has a relatively small planting programme, ment. Using treated sewage water for tree planting also improves preferring to focus on managing natural forests urban environments. Whilewastewater storage anddisposal prob- Centralized decision-making, restricted ems are reduced, the planting protects reservoirs fromerosion and landownership and a lack of research are other Itation, stabilizes hilly or sloping urban areas, provides addi- common issues identified in the countries studied tional green spaces and generates income. Notable improvements In addition, it was noted that several agencies to the environment and human health can thus be achieved sometimes deal with the same problems in an uncoordinated manner, thereby hindering results
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 16 is Forestry of Directorate The. fences living as and .woodlots in planting tree promoting currently the include practices agroforestry, Tunisia In species Medicago and Atriplex, Acacia of planting forest beyond and within forage and browse for which, windbreaks of planting the and, areas irrigated of eighth-one around protecting were being also is Emphasis. 2000 by land agricultural as such (species multipurpose planting on placed ,(carob and hazel, pecan, pistachio, walnut forest in and areas mountainous in particularly .clearings near and villages in woodlots Establishing forests natural on pressure relieves centres urban tree, cities In. fodder and poles, fuelwood for recreational and aesthetic for stressed is planting roadside and urban-peri, urban While. benefits ,studied countries the all in promoted is planting .active most the been perhaps has Tunisia belt green a establishing include Initiatives boulevards lining, parks creating, Tunis around and esplanades coastal planting, motorways and for programme national a implementing .trees heritage have plantations of ha 000 22 about, Mali In areas urban and villages in established been additional been has there and, 1986 since as active been has Iran. roadways along planting urban-peri and urban of network a with, well ,however, Often. parks and forests planted be cannot irrigation when arise problems water of because term long the in sustained from wastewater treated of use The. shortages for opportunity an as seen therefore is cities several in planting tree urban-peri and urban .countries Combating. desertification Combating the all for objective major a is desertification make to seeming Tunisia and Iran with, countries 140 established has Iran. progress most the ,Now. 1963 since stations control desertification it that reports it, effort concerted of years 40 after affected seriously its of fifth-one controlled has ests for planted of ha 200 17, Tunisia In. lands and 1990 between dunes fix to established were as planted ha 700 5 additional an with, 1999 .shelterbelts and windbreaks planting national and capacity Institutional and records poor of Problems. plans without institutions government underfunded were issues forest address to strategies clear .Oman and Ethiopia in noticeable particularly 70 plant to aiming is, hand other the on, Tunisia major a has also Iran and, annually trees million only independent, Namibia. programme planting and policies forest bold developed has, 1990 since and planting tree advocating legislation .woodlands and forests of role the recognizing ,programme planting small relatively a has Mali .forests natural managing on focus to preferring restricted, making-decision Centralized other are research of lack a and landownership .studied countries the in identified issues common agencies several that noted was it, addition In an in problems same the with deal sometimes .results hindering thereby, manner uncoordinated will growth population urban rapid, decades three next the In of percent 50 than more affecting possibly, issue major a become people of percent 80 to 75 and population Asian and African the means, areas swampy in or hillsides prone-erosion on often, sionexpan fast This). 1999a, FAO (America South and Central in living ,insecurity food face and conditions poor in live settlers most that ,use domestic for energy inadequate, water-drinking clean of lack unsanitary and pollution air, materials construction of shortage .sewage and waste of disposal to linked closely is environment urban the of quality the Since for planting tree, cities of regeneration social and economic the stimulating beautification with, benefits several brings amenity improves also planting tree for water sewage treated Using. mentemploy, hence, and development business, investment outside and erosion from reservoirs protects planting the, reduced are lemsprob disposal and storage wastewater While. environments urban improvements Notable. income generates and spaces green tionaladdi provides, areas urban sloping or hilly stabilizes, siltation .achieved be thus can health human and environment the to environments urban enhances trees Planting