STATE OF THE WORLD's FORESTs 2003 Science and technology in the forest sector: widening gaps an narrowing options mprovements in science and technology are communities, environmental groups, the private critical to the sustainable management of capacity to meet growing demand for the range Nations Conference on Environment and o forests, woodlands and trees, and to their international efforts that began with the United of goods and services that they provide, Development(UNCED), has led to better cluding environmental and social benefits recognition of the broader values of forests, with A significant shift in research and development implications for forest research and development is needed to address multiple-use management, as noted in the following with more attention given to ecosystem rocesses and their interaction with social and Environmental concerns economic systems. Yet the resources invested in Environmental concerns are receiving greater forest research are alarmingly inadequate and attention as many former assumptions are ignificant imbalances exist between developed coming into question. For example, a substantial and developing countries, government and body of knowledge has accumulated on the ndustry, and different segments of the forest conservation of biological diversity, climate sector. It is in this context that the present change, hydrological cycles and land chapter examines issues relating to scientific and degradation, all of which have a bearing on land acity in the use, particularly forests focusing on the widening gaps and narrowing Biological diversity. Concern over the conservation of the totality of life, including the CHANGING FOREST SECTOR entire system of natural processes, has PRIORITIES significant implications for forestry, forest The relative importance of the different management practices and forest research(see functions of forests varies depending on the the preceding chapter). Replacing commercially culture. the state of social and economic less valuable vegetation with monoculture plantations has become less acceptable and now aspirations of a given society. Investment in requires consideration of biological diversity research and development reflects the changing issues. Improved methods of assessing current priorities, although the improvement of wood- and changing values of biological diversity will production and wood-processing technologies therefore help to fine-tune required has traditionally attracted the most public and interventions private resources, while research related to other ecosystem functions and social dimensions, such Climate change. Concern about the impact of as poverty alleviation, has largely been human activity on climate change has drawn neglected. However, pressure from le attention to the role of forests in storing and
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 96 I are technology and science in mprovements of management sustainable the to critical their to and, trees and woodlands, forests range the for demand growing meet to capacity ,provide they that services and goods of .benefits social and environmental including development and research in shift significant A ,management use-multiple address to needed is ecosystem to given attention more with and social with interaction their and processes in invested resources the Yet. systems economic and inadequate alarmingly are research forest developed between exist imbalances significant and government, countries developing and forest the of segments different and, industry present the that context this in is It. sector and scientific to relating issues examines chapter ,sector forest the in capacity technological narrowing and gaps widening the on focusing .options SECTOR FOREST CHANGING PRIORITIES different the of importance relative The the on depending varies forests of functions economic and social of state the, culture and demands specific the and development in Investment. society given a of aspirations changing the reflects development and research technologies processing-wood and productionwood of improvement the although, priorities and public most the attracted traditionally has other to related research while, resources private such, dimensions social and functions ecosystem been largely has, alleviation poverty as local from pressure, However. neglected private the, groups environmental, communities with coupled, society civil and sector United the with began that efforts international and Environment on Conference Nations better to led has), UNCED (Development with, forests of values broader the of recognition development and research forest for implications .following the in noted as concerns Environmental greater receiving are concerns Environmental are assumptions former many as attention substantial a, example For. question into coming the on accumulated has knowledge of body climate, diversity biological of conservation land and cycles hydrological, change land on bearing a have which of all, degradation .forests particularly, use the over Concern. diversity Biological the including, life of totality the of conservation has, processes natural of system entire forest, forestry for implications significant see (research forest and practices management commercially Replacing). chapter preceding the monoculture with vegetation valuable less now and acceptable less become has plantations diversity biological of consideration requires current assessing of methods Improved. issues will diversity biological of values changing and required tune-fine to help therefore .interventions of impact the about Concern. change Climate drawn has change climate on activity human and storing in forests of role the to attention technology and Science :sector forest the in and gaps widening options narrowing
PART II SELECTED CURRENT ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR sequestering carbon, given that they account Implications for forest research for an estimated 80 percent of annual In terms of research, both alleviation of poverty exchanges of carbon between terrestrial and environmental protection will require ecosystems and the atmosphere(see p 25). This better understanding of the interaction calls for substantial work on carbon budgets, between ecosystem processes and social and the costs and benefits of various interventions economic systems, and development of tools and the use of market and non-market and techniques based on more mechanisms to mitigate climate change comprehensive knowledge an increase in the production of goods and Forests and water. Access to freshwater has services required by the poor, and already become a critical limiting factor in the enhancement of employment-and income- economic development of several countries and generating opportunities; a cause of conflict in many parts of the world modification of technology to comply with However, considerable uncertainty exists environmental requirements, especially the garding the link between forests and water protection of biological diversity and the (see chapter on freshwater resources, p. 74) maintenance of key ecosystem processes Additional multidisciplinary research is The fundamental question is whether science ed in order to reach a be and technology, as a whole, and forest research, understanding of the consequences of various in particular, are moving in that direction, or land uses, including forestry, for water yield, whether the gaps in knowledge and capacities and to develop systems for equitably sharing are widening and long-term options narrowing the costs and benefits of protecting watersheds WIDENING GAP Socio-economic issues: alleviating poverty recisely when science must focus on social and and enhancing food security environmental concerns in the forest sector it spite unprecedented economic progres nat gaps in capacity among countries are gap in wealth and income is widening, and dening and that, despite the need to poverty and deprivation are persisting. An undertake more broad-based research, current estimated 815 million people suffer from shifts in priorities and institutional arrangements malnourishment(FAO, 2002), and progress towards the United Nations Millennium Development Goals is too slow(UNDP and UNICEF, 2002). Approximately half the world's population of 6 billion survives on less than Power and impotence and depend on natural resources, the lackoc bas US$2 per day. Although most live in rural ar skills,of access to appropriate technology and of secure tenure as well as a host of other "A profound paradox of power and impotence, crying out for a problems, means that they are unable to lution, now faces concerned people in every society. On the one manage and use resources sustainably. The fact hand, there is the unmatched power of basic scientific and techno- that developments in science and technology logical research, reporting one rema have bypassed large segments of society also dizzying speed On theotherhand, individuals andwhole societies contributes to the unsustainable use of are plagued by ominous problems that yield all-too-slowly, in part resources and environmental degradation. It because of persistent ignorance at the fundamental level. also aggravates poverty, and not only in developing countries, for there are pockets of Branscomb, Holton and Sonnert. 2001 deprivation everywhe e even in the m
97 SECTOR FOREST THE IN ISSUES CURRENT SELECTED II PART account they that given, carbon sequestering annual of percent 80 estimated an for terrestrial between carbon of exchanges This). 25. p see (atmosphere the and ecosystems ,budgets carbon on work substantial for calls ,interventions various of benefits and costs the market-non and market of use the and .change climate mitigate to mechanisms has freshwater to Access. water and Forests the in factor limiting critical a become already and countries several of development economic .world the of parts many in conflict of cause a exists uncertainty considerable, However water and forests between link the regarding .(74. p, resources freshwater on chapter see( is research multidisciplinary Additional better a reach to order in required various of consequences the of understanding ,yield water for, forestry including, uses land sharing equitably for systems develop to and .watersheds protecting of benefits and costs the poverty alleviating: issues economic-Socio security food enhancing and the, progress economic unprecedented Despite and, widening is income and wealth in gap An. persisting are deprivation and poverty from suffer people million 815 estimated progress and), 2002, FAO (malnourishment Millennium’ Nations United the towards and UNDP (slow too is Goals Development s’world the half Approximately). 2002, UNICEF than less on survives billion 6 of population areas rural in live most Although. day per 2$US of lack the, resources natural on depend and and technology appropriate to access of, skills other of host a as well as, tenure secure of to unable are they that means, problems fact The. sustainably resources use and manage technology and science in developments that also society of segments large bypassed have of use unsustainable the to contributes It. degradation environmental and resources in only not and, poverty aggravates also of pockets are there for, countries developing of midst the in even, everywhere deprivation .plenty research forest for Implications poverty of alleviation both, research of terms In :require will protection environmental and interaction the of understanding better• and social and processes ecosystem between tools of development and, systems economic more on based techniques and ;knowledge comprehensive and goods of production the in increase an• and, poor the by required services ;opportunities generatingincome and- employment of enhancement with comply to technology of modification• the especially, requirements environmental the and diversity biological of protection .processes ecosystem key of maintenance science whether is question fundamental The ,research forest and, whole a as, technology and or, direction that in moving are, particular in capacities and knowledge in gaps the whether .narrowing options term-long and widening are GAPS WIDENING and social on focus must science when Precisely it, sector forest the in concerns environmental are countries among capacity in gaps that seems to need the despite, that and widening current, research based-broad more undertake arrangements institutional and priorities in shifts a for out crying, impotence and power of paradox profound A“ one the On. society every in people concerned faces now, solution at another after advance remarkable one reporting, research logicaltechno and scientific basic of power unmatched the is there, hand societies whole and individuals, hand other the On. speed dizzying part in, slowly-too-all yield that problems ominous by plagued are “.level fundamental the at ignorance persistent of because .2001, Sonnert and Holton, Branscomb impotence and Power
STATE OF THE WORLDS FORESTS 2003 could result in reduced attention to public goods On a per capita basis, countries in the high research in these areas technology group invest about 20 times more than those in the group immediately below. This The technology divide is consistent with other parameters, such as the Almost all science and technology efforts and number of patents per 1 000 inhabitants and the their results point to a wide gap between average nun nber of patents per country group in developed and developing countries. Table 9 1997-1998. As can be seen, the bulk of the classifies 87 countries on the basis of per capita worlds population lives in countries with low investment in technology efforts and patents he high-technology group consists entirely of development. This disparity is manifest in the industrialized countries, while all those in the level of output low and negligible groups are developing The involvement of developing regions in countries. The moderate group includes some science and technology efforts is clearly very low industrialized countries and some in transition. Although not a perfect indicator, the differences expensive biotechnology for Table 9 Average technology effort per country divided into technology groups, 1997-1998 293.25 6803 Low 2536.4 0.24 55.6 0.00
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 98 goods public to attention reduced in result could .areas these in research divide technology The and efforts technology and science all Almost between gap wide a to point results their 9 Table. countries developing and developed capita per of basis the on countries 87 classifies .patents and efforts technology in investment of entirely consists group technology-high The the in those all while, countries industrialized developing are groups negligible and low some includes group moderate The. countries .transition in some and countries industrialized more times 20 about invest group technologyhigh the in countries, basis capita per a On This. below immediately group the in those than the as such, parameters other with consistent is the and inhabitants 000 1 per patents of number in group country per patents of number average the of bulk the, seen be can As. 1998–1997 low with countries in lives population s’world and research in investment negligible and the in manifest is disparity This. development .output of level in regions developing of involvement The .low very clearly is efforts technology and science differences the, indicator perfect a not Although patents of Number per Patents and Research population Total countries of Number group Technology country per inhabitants 000 1 capita per development) millions( ($US( 803 6 99.0 25.293 1.855 23 High 50 02.0 01.14 0.756 20 Moderate 11 00.0 24.0 4.536 2 23 Low 0 00.0 00.0 6.655 21 Negligible .2001, Lall on Based: Source narrowing, divide Technology (glauca Picea (spruce white: options somatic through developed seedlings but sophisticated a – embryogenesis SER FOREST CANADIANlarge for biotechnology expensive trees of production scale KLIMASZEWSKA. K/VICE 9 TABLE 1998–1997, groups technology into divided country per effort technology Average
PART II SELECTED CURRENT ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR in the number of scientific articles published by region hint at disproportionate efforts and the TABLE 10 marginalization of developing countries in Number of scientific articles published in knowledge advances. In 1999, North America different regions and Western Europe accounted for about 70 percent of scientific articles published, while sub- Saharan Africa accounted for about 0.6 percent of publications (Table 10). Furthermore, the broad groupings conceal disparities within regions. For example, North america lia,China, India and Jay 183211 94 percent of the publications in the Asia and the Pacific region. In sub-Saharan Africa, 56 percent Asia and the pacific 101369 of scientific articles were published in South Eastern Europe and Central Asia 30763 Africa. What is more disturbing, however, is Near East and North Africa 7659 9086 significant decline in sub-Saharan African out between 1986 and 1999 Latin America 5583 Although data comparing research and Sub-Saharan Africa development efforts in the forest sector in World 462745 28643 different countries are limited, they appear to Source: NSF 2002. mirror the overall situation described in the previous paragraphs. For example, almost perent of the member institutions of the An overview of science and technology investment Research and development investment in the 28 OECD US$16 345 million(NSF, 2002), while the total budget of countries in 1998 was estimated at US$502 billion the 16 CGIAr centres in that year was US$331 million seven countries accounted for 85 percent, and the (CGAR,2000 United States alone accounted for 44 percent of the total (NSF,2002 culture, forestry and fisheries in the United States in 1999 In 1997-1998, the United States registered an average of was estimated at US$15 528 million(NSF, 2002), while 3.3 patents per 1 000 people. South Africa, industrially government investment in agricultural research in India, the most developed country in sub-Saharan Africa, had a country with a relatively well-developed national re- only 0.03 patents per 1 000 people, while India had just arch system, was US$348 million in 1995( Pray and 0.001all2001) Fuglie, 2001) Per capita productive enterprise research and develop. An increasing proportion of research investment in OECD ment for Japan in 1997-1998 was US$858. 4, while for countries comes from the private sector. In 1981, industry Brazil, South Africa and China it was USS13.7, $12.8 and accounted for 51 percent of the total OECD research and $0.9, respectively (Lall, 2001). development outlay of US$251 billion. By 1998, this had United States Federal Government support for academic increased to 62.5 percent, while the total outlay had al- agricultural research and development in 2000 was most doubled(Pray and Fuglie, 2001)
99 SECTOR FOREST THE IN ISSUES CURRENT SELECTED II PART by published articles scientific of number the in the and efforts disproportionate at hint region in countries developing of marginalization America North, 1999 In. advances knowledge 70 about for accounted Europe Western and percent 6.0 about for accounted Africa Saharansub while, published articles scientific of percent groupings broad the, Furthermore). 10 Table( ,example For. regions within disparities conceal for accounted Japan and India, China, Australia the and Asia the in publications the of percent 94 percent 56, Africa Saharan-sub In. region Pacific South in published were articles scientific of the is, however, disturbing more is What. Africa output African Saharan-sub in decline significant .1999 and 1986 between and research comparing data Although in sector forest the in efforts development to appear they, limited are countries different the in described situation overall the mirror almost, example For. paragraphs previous the of institutions member the of percent 70 Number Number Region publications of publications of 1999 in 1986 in 211 183 138 199 America North 548 188 496 143 Europe Western 369 101 931 59 Pacific the and Asia 763 30 299 42 Asia Central and Europe Eastern 086 9 659 7 Africa North and East Near 034 12 583 5 America Latin 632 3 639 4 Africa Saharan-Sub 643 528 745 462 World .2002, NSF: Source OECD 28 the in investment development and Research• ;billion 502$US at estimated was 1998 in countries the and, percent 85 for accounted countries seven total the of percent 44 for accounted alone States United .(2002, NSF( of average an registered States United the, 1998–1997 In• industrially, Africa South. people 000 1 per patents 3.3 had, Africa Saharan-sub in country developed most the just had India while, people 000 1 per patents 03.0 only .(2001, Lall (001.0 for while, 4.858$US was 1998–1997 in Japan for mentdevelop and research enterprise productive capita Per• and 8.12, $7.13$US was it China and Africa South, Brazil .(2001, Lall (respectively, 9.0$ academic for support Government Federal States United• was 2000 in development and research agricultural of budget total the while), 2002, NSF (million 345 16$US million 331$US was year that in centres CGIAR 16 the .(2000, CGIAR( 1999 in States United the in fisheries and forestry, cultureagri for support development and research Government• while), 2002, NSF (million 528 15$US at estimated was ,India in research agricultural in investment government and Pray (1995 in million 348$US was, system searchre national developed-well relatively a with country a .(2001, Fuglie OECD in investment research of proportion increasing An• industry, 1981 In. sector private the from comes countries and research OECD total the of percent 51 for accounted had this, 1998 By. billion 251$US of outlay development .(2001, Fuglie and Pray (doubled mostal had outlay total the while, percent 5.62 to increased investment technology and science of overview An 10 TABLE in published articles scientific of Number regions different
STATE OF THE WORLDS FORESTS 2003 capacity, and the forest sector also benefited from such initiatives However with the decline Marginalization of developing country research in development assistance, support for research particularly affected sub-Saharan Africa, where donor funding has been critical in sustaining The gap between developed and developing countries in forestry efforts in several national research institutions research capacity and the delivery of usable results remains unac The declining trend in agricultural research and ceptablywide. Developing countries, with 80 percent of theworlds development most probably applies to the forest population, account for only 2 percent of the global expenditures on scientific research and for an even smaller share of the research output, which is the quantity of direct importance. They continue Private sector involvement to face difficulties participating in the globalization process and In many countries, structural adjustment many risk being marginalized and effectively excluded from glo- programmes have led to public-sector bal dialog downsizing and significant reductions in research capacity. Economic liberalization policies were thought to provide incentives for growth in the private sector and to more than compensate for the drop in public-sector investment, including research investment.It was also claimed that privatization of forest International Union of Forestry Research research would strengthen the links between Organizations(IUFRO)come from the research and its application, increasing its Co-operation and Development(OECD). IUFRO Proponents of neo-liberal economic policies <9 30 countries of the Oganisation for Economic by focusing on outputs and has launched a special programme to address maintain that increased domestic private sector the low level of involvement of developing investment will replace public sector investment countries in its networks(IUFro, 2002 and that increased foreign direct investment will Despite efforts in recent years, there are no sult of declining indications that developing country research is development assistance. These assumptions increasing or that gaps in science and technology seem unrealistic, especially in many developing are narrowing, except in a small number of countries where the private sector is weak and countries in Asia and Latin America. In many has neither the interest nor the capacity to invest countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, in research. The few private initiatives that do where forests could play a critical part in exist are limited to adaptive research in areas sustainable development and the enhancement that provide immediate competitive advantages, of livelihoods, there is little research capacity in such as enhancing the productivity of terms of institutions and human resources. The plantations and wood processing. Even in few institutions that do exist are underfunded Europe, where the private sector has a major role and often lack adequate systems to make in growing and processing wood, the wisdom of effective use of the limited resources that are privatizing and commercializing forest researd available. Moreover, they are unable to plan and is being questioned (Hellstrom, Palo and implement research or to encourage the adoption of appropriate technology Zealand where forest research was drastically structured a decade ago (richardson, 2002) Declining international support Increased flows of foreign direct investment ntil the early 1990s, there were mar ave not been sufficient to compensate for programmes and projects to build research declining development assistance, especially in
2003 FORESTS S’WORLD THE OF STATE 100 Research Forestry of Union International the from come) IUFRO (Organizations Economic for Organisation the of countries 30 IUFRO). OECD (Development and operation-Co address to programme special a launched has developing of involvement of level low the .(2002, IUFRO (networks its in countries no are there, years recent in efforts Despite is research country developing that indications technology and science in gaps that or increasing of number small a in except, narrowing are many In. America Latin and Asia in countries ,Africa Saharan-sub in those especially, countries in part critical a play could forests where enhancement the and development sustainable in capacity research little is there, livelihoods of The. resources human and institutions of terms underfunded are exist do that institutions few make to systems adequate lack often and are that resources limited the of use effective and plan to unable are they, Moreover. available the encourage to or research implement .technology appropriate of adoption support international Declining many were there, 1990s early the Until research build to projects and programmes benefited also sector forest the and, capacity decline the with, However. initiatives such from research for support, assistance development in has This. shrank also development and where, Africa Saharan-sub affected particularly sustaining in critical been has funding donor .institutions research national several in efforts and research agricultural in trend declining The forest the to applies probably most development .well as sector involvement sector Private adjustment structural, countries many In sector-public to led have programmes in reductions significant and downsizing liberalization Economic. capacity research for incentives provide to thought were policies than more to and sector private the in growth sector-public in drop the for compensate It. investment research including, investment forest of privatization that claimed also was between links the strengthen would research its increasing, application its and research .products and outputs on focusing by efficiency policies economic liberal-neo of Proponents sector private domestic increased that maintain investment sector public replace will investment will investment direct foreign increased that and declining of result a as left gaps the fill assumptions These. assistance development developing many in especially, unrealistic seem and weak is sector private the where countries invest to capacity the nor interest the neither has do that initiatives private few The. research in areas in research adaptive to limited are exist ,advantages competitive immediate provide that of productivity the enhancing as such in Even. processing wood and plantations role major a has sector private the where, Europe of wisdom the, wood processing and growing in research forest commercializing and privatizing and Palo, Hellström (questioned being is New in case the also is This). 1998, Solberg drastically was research forest where, Zealand .(2002, Richardson (ago decade a restructured investment direct foreign of flows Increased for compensate to sufficient been not have in especially, assistance development declining forestry in countries developing and developed between gap The“ s’world the of percent 80 with, countries Developing. wide ceptablyunac remains results usable of delivery the and capacity research expenditures global the of percent 2 only for account, population research the of share smaller even an for and research scientific on continue They. importance direct of quantity the is which, output and process globalization the in participating difficulties face to “.dialogue balglo from excluded effectively and marginalized being risk many .1999., al et Szaro research country developing of Marginalization