STATE OF THE WORLD's FoRESTS 2001 PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DI NTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR Recent developments his chapter discusses some of the main issues effectiveness of forest management(see and emerging trends in the forest sector, Management, conservation and sustainable focusing largely on the last two to three years. development of forest resources, p. 6). A pilot As it is impossible to cover all nev assessment of the health of the worlds developments, notable events and significant ecosystems, including forests, was undertaken trends worldwide, selected issues receiving by the United Nations Environment Programme international attention during this period have (UNEP), the World Bank and the World been highlighted. Resources Institute (WRD)(Rosen, 2000) Concern about deforestation and forest THE STATUS OF FOREST RESOURCES degradation, which are evident in many places Forest cover throughout the world, has given rise to a The global forest resources assessment 2000 number of analyses of the causes and effects FRa 2000)provides the most recent information (e.g. UN, 1996; Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998; on the state and change of forest cover, or area, and Contreras-Hermosilla, 2000). The causes of globally. The results of the assessment are forest degradation and loss are complex and discussed in more detail in part II vary widely from place to place. a distinction is Forests cover about 3 870 million ha, or made between direct and underlying causes. 30 percent of the earths land area. Tropical and Major direct causes of forest degradation subtropical forests comprise 56 percent of the include insect pests and diseases; fire; worlds forests, while temperate and boreal overharvesting of industrial wood, fuelwood forests account for 44 percent. Forest plantations and other forest products; mismanagement of make up only about 5 percent of all forests; the production forests, including poor harvesting rest is natural forest. FRA 2000 revealed that the practices; overgrazing: air pollution; and estimated net annual change in forest area extreme climatic events such as storms Habitat worldwide in the 1990s was- 9. 4 million ha degradation caused by these factors and the representing the difference between the overharvesting of wildlife are major factors estimated annual rate of deforestation of 14.6 contributing to local depletion of forest-based million ha and the estimated annual rate of wildlife populations. Underlying causes include forest area increase of 5.2 million ha poverty, population growth, markets and trade in forest products, and macroeconomic policies Forest condition This section will be limited to discussion of Although global forest area and deforestation two noteworthy causes of forest damage during rates are often used to frame discussions about the 1999-2000 period: i) severe wildfires in forests, perhaps of greater significance are the many countries, with recently updated condition of forests and their ability to provide information on the wildfires of 1997 and 1998 the range of goods and services demanded of the worst years reported for wildfires and forest them. The condition of forests is even more fires in recent times: and ii) the violent storms difficult to assess than area, however. In Fra that hit Europe in December 1999. As disastrous 2000(see Part ID), an effort was made to report as these events proved, however, they have had on forest damage from various causes and to some positive outcomes and have produced assess wood supply and production. An indication of related trends is provided The spate of wildfires that occurred globally indirectly by recent efforts to assess the over the last four years catalysed national policy
Recent developments This chapter discusses some of the main issues and emerging trends in the forest sector, focusing largely on the last two to three years. As it is impossible to cover all new developments, notable events and significant trends worldwide, selected issues receiving international attention during this period have been highlighted. THE STATUS OF FOREST RESOURCES Forest cover The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) provides the most recent information on the state and change of forest cover, or area, globally. The results of the assessment are discussed in more detail in Part II. Forests cover about 3 870 million ha, or 30 percent of the earth’s land area. Tropical and subtropical forests comprise 56 percent of the world’s forests, while temperate and boreal forests account for 44 percent. Forest plantations make up only about 5 percent of all forests; the rest is natural forest. FRA 2000 revealed that the estimated net annual change in forest area worldwide in the 1990s was -9.4 million ha, representing the difference between the estimated annual rate of deforestation of 14.6 million ha and the estimated annual rate of forest area increase of 5.2 million ha. Forest condition Although global forest area and deforestation rates are often used to frame discussions about forests, perhaps of greater significance are the condition of forests and their ability to provide the range of goods and services demanded of them. The condition of forests is even more difficult to assess than area, however. In FRA 2000 (see Part II), an effort was made to report on forest damage from various causes and to assess wood supply and production. An indication of related trends is provided indirectly by recent efforts to assess the effectiveness of forest management (see Management, conservation and sustainable development of forest resources, p. 6). A pilot assessment of the health of the world’s ecosystems, including forests, was undertaken by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank and the World Resources Institute (WRI) (Rosen, 2000). Concern about deforestation and forest degradation, which are evident in many places throughout the world, has given rise to a number of analyses of the causes and effects (e.g. UN, 1996; Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998; and Contreras-Hermosilla, 2000). The causes of forest degradation and loss are complex and vary widely from place to place. A distinction is made between direct and underlying causes. Major direct causes of forest degradation include insect pests and diseases; fire; overharvesting of industrial wood, fuelwood and other forest products; mismanagement of production forests, including poor harvesting practices; overgrazing; air pollution; and extreme climatic events such as storms. Habitat degradation caused by these factors and the overharvesting of wildlife are major factors contributing to local depletion of forest-based wildlife populations. Underlying causes include poverty, population growth, markets and trade in forest products, and macroeconomic policies. This section will be limited to discussion of two noteworthy causes of forest damage during the 1999-2000 period: i) severe wildfires in many countries, with recently updated information on the wildfires of 1997 and 1998 – the worst years reported for wildfires and forest fires in recent times; and ii) the violent storms that hit Europe in December 1999. As disastrous as these events proved, however, they have had some positive outcomes and have produced useful lessons. The spate of wildfires that occurred globally over the last four years catalysed national policy PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 1
2 STATE OF THE WORLD's FoRESTs 2001 responses and regional and international initiatives more than 800 000 ha in Mexico in 1998, said in the prevention, early warning, detection and to have been the country's most difficult control of fires Countries demonstrated their wildfire season in memory. ability to react quickly and effectively to the Although on a smaller scale than in 1997-1998, storms in Europe, which helped to minimize the the global wildfire situation in 1999-2000 was negative environmental, economic and social again serious. Fires were widespread in Indonesia impacts of the storms. Modifications in forest in 1999 and 2000, but not on a comparable scale establishment and management measures are now with the 1997-1998 period. The major fires in 2000 being proposed to reduce the potential risk of occurred in Ethiopia, the eastern Mediterranean storm damage in the future and the western United states Ethiopia had an extreme wildfire season early Forest fires. Large areas of forest around the in the year as a consequence of the delayed world caught fire in 1997 and 1998, when intense onset of the rainy season and increased land El Nino-related drought conditions prevailed. The use pressure. Burning to clear agricultural land extent of these fires and the damage attributed to in the montane forests in the southern part of hem were so immense that one united states the country led to large-scale wildfires and, by newspaper described 1998 as"the year the earth the end of the dry season in April 2000, mor caught fire". At times this seemed to be literally than 100 000 ha of these forests had been true as millions of hectares burned and smoke severely affected or destroyed by fire blanketed large regions such as Central America Wildfires burned about 2.8 million ha of forests and Southeast Asia, disrupting air and sea and grasslands in the United States (as of navigation and causing serious threats to public September 2000). The situation was safety. Seventy people were killed by the fires in particularly serious in the western states, Mexico alone. Ecosystems that an which suffered severe drought conditions. An subject to fires, such as the Amazon rain forest in enormous national firefighting effort was Brazil and the cloud forest of Chiapas in Mexico, mobilized, supplemented by firefight sustained considerable damage. Estimates of forest personnel from Australia, Canada, Mexico and cover burnt by the fires include: New Zealand. This firefighting effort cost the 9.7 million ha in Indonesia(including 6.5 United States about USSl billion. million ha in East Kalimantan), where the The prolonged drought in the eastern economic costs incurred are estimated to have Mediterranean region in mid-2000 led to a bad been between USS4.5 and USS10 billion and 75 fire year for several countries. By the end of million people were affected by the fires, September 2000, more than 150 000 ha had smoke or haze in 1997-1998 been burnt in greece. 2 The Balkan region 4.3 to 7.1 million ha in the russian federation and Turkey also suffered serious wilding (particularly Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia in1998 2.7 million ha in Mongolia in 1997; The above-mentioned fires made"headline nearly 4 million ha, or about 17.5 percent of news, yet frequently occurring and widespread the total area of the brazilian state of roraima, fires in many areas of the world do not always in the fire of 1998 receive coverage by the international press. Hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions of hectares burn annually in fire IThe material for this section was provided by R Mutch and ecosystems, including in dry zones of West Afr IGoldammer. It was collected for the special report on forest fire large areas of Africa south of the equator, Central carried out under FAO's Global Forest Resources Assessment Asia, southern Latin America and Australia. For 2000. This ongoing global study has compiled fire atistics and narratives by country and will provide a the 1990s Provisional data, not yet confirmed
2 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 responses and regional and international initiatives in the prevention, early warning, detection and control of fires. Countries demonstrated their ability to react quickly and effectively to the storms in Europe, which helped to minimize the negative environmental, economic and social impacts of the storms. Modifications in forest establishment and management measures are now being proposed to reduce the potential risk of storm damage in the future. Forest fires. 1 Large areas of forest around the world caught fire in 1997 and 1998, when intense El Niño-related drought conditions prevailed. The extent of these fires and the damage attributed to them were so immense that one United States newspaper described 1998 as “the year the earth caught fire”. At times this seemed to be literally true, as millions of hectares burned and smoke blanketed large regions such as Central America and Southeast Asia, disrupting air and sea navigation and causing serious threats to public safety. Seventy people were killed by the fires in Mexico alone. Ecosystems that are not generally subject to fires, such as the Amazon rain forest in Brazil and the cloud forest of Chiapas in Mexico, sustained considerable damage. Estimates of forest cover burnt by the fires include: • 9.7 million ha in Indonesia (including 6.5 million ha in East Kalimantan), where the economic costs incurred are estimated to have been between US$4.5 and US$10 billion and 75 million people were affected by the fires, smoke or haze in 1997-1998; • 4.3 to 7.1 million ha in the Russian Federation in 1998; • 2.7 million ha in Mongolia in 1997; • nearly 4 million ha, or about 17.5 percent of the total area of the Brazilian state of Roraima, in the fire of 1998; • more than 800 000 ha in Mexico in 1998, said to have been the country’s most difficult wildfire season in memory. Although on a smaller scale than in 1997-1998, the global wildfire situation in 1999-2000 was again serious. Fires were widespread in Indonesia in 1999 and 2000, but not on a comparable scale with the 1997-1998 period. The major fires in 2000 occurred in Ethiopia, the eastern Mediterranean and the western United States: • Ethiopia had an extreme wildfire season early in the year as a consequence of the delayed onset of the rainy season and increased land use pressure. Burning to clear agricultural land in the montane forests in the southern part of the country led to large-scale wildfires and, by the end of the dry season in April 2000, more than 100 000 ha of these forests had been severely affected or destroyed by fire. • Wildfires burned about 2.8 million ha of forests and grasslands in the United States (as of September 2000). The situation was particularly serious in the western states, which suffered severe drought conditions. An enormous national firefighting effort was mobilized, supplemented by firefighting personnel from Australia, Canada, Mexico and New Zealand. This firefighting effort cost the United States about US$1 billion. • The prolonged drought in the eastern Mediterranean region in mid-2000 led to a bad fire year for several countries. By the end of September 2000, more than 150 000 ha had been burnt in Greece.2 The Balkan region (particularly Bulgaria, Romania and Croatia) and Turkey also suffered serious wildfires. The above-mentioned fires made “headline news”, yet frequently occurring and widespread fires in many areas of the world do not always receive coverage by the international press. Hundreds of thousands, and sometimes millions, of hectares burn annually in fire-adapted ecosystems, including in dry zones of West Africa, large areas of Africa south of the equator, Central Asia, southern Latin America and Australia. For 1 The material for this section was provided by R. Mutch and J. Goldammer. It was collected for the Special report on forest fires, carried out under FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. This ongoing global study has compiled fire statistics and narratives by country and will provide a basis for understanding the global fire situation in the 1990s. 2 Provisional data, not yet confirmed
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR example, during the fire season in 2000, an forests has led to programmes involving local estimated 200 million ha were bunt in africa communities in efforts to reduce the risk of south of the equator. wildfire (e.g. Project Firefight of the World The severe wildfires witnessed over the past few Conservation Union [IUCN] and the world wide years have resulted in far greater public awareness Fund for Nature [WWFD. Community-based fire of the causes and effects of forest fires a focus management projects, most of them designed as policy-related issues and the mobilization of efforts Integrated Forest Fire Management projects, are at the national, regional and international levels. under way in several countries, including Braz a current debate in the united states is focused on the extent to which tree thinning, timber harvesting and prescribed burning might reduce fire hazards in the future. Adherence to a policy of fire exclusion for many decades has led to an Community fore nd fire prevention unnatural accumulation of fuels within fire. suppre sion in the Gambia dependent ecosystems. Fires in forests of long- needled pines now burn at much higher intensities than they did before 1900, when fires occurred The classic approach to fire prevention and fire suppression more frequently. Because they are larger and more has been largely unsuccessful in many developing countries intense, the fires today are more difficult to control This failure can mainly be explained by the lack of resources and are more damaging. necessary to operate state-controlled fire monitoring systems. While there is a common perception among the In addition land and natural resources are state-owned in most public that fires are bad for all forests, in fire- countries, so local people are not inclined to invest in their dapted forest ecosystems they are a form of management. Experience has shown, however, that people's natural disturbance that helps maintain and renew attitudes can be changed if governments grant ownership or the ecosystem and can actually improve habitat long-term user rights to the resources. quality in the long term. While the short-term The Gambia introduced community forestry on a pilot basis effects of fire may be impressively destructive, the in 1991 and began implementing it on a countrywide scale long-term ecological effects in these ecosystems in 1994. With the enactment of forest legislation in 1998, the Govemment of the Gambia fully endorsed the transfer of forest A number of studies on the Indonesian fires ownership to rural communities. A recent case study on the of 1997-1998 have examined the underlying management of forest fires through the involvement of local social and economic causes of these fires communities compares the attitudes of villagers who are in- (e.g. Rowell and Moore, 2000; Barber and volved in community forest management with those who are Schweithelm, 2000; and studies under way by not involved (FAO, 2000a). The survey reveals that the popu the Center for International Forestry Research [CiFORD. They draw a strong link between fire lation in general is very much aware of the damage caused by fire, and of its dependency on forest resources. It is not and land use policies and land management a lack of awareness that inhibits communities from partici- practices. The causes include small-scale pating in the fight against wildfires; it is a lack of incentive agricultural fires that burned out of control, the The study shows that the occurrence of fires has declined con- use of fire to clear land for large-scale siderably in the area of the country in which community plantations (e. g, oil-palm) and conflicts between forestry was started. In this area, only two fires have been eported since 1992-and both were fought successfully by Fires occurring elsewhere in Southeast Asia and the local communities concerned. The study further indicates parts of the Americas and africa are often that community management contributes to the stronger related to agricultural practices and land clearing. enforcement of laws and by-laws related to fire prevention fire is traditionally used as a land managemer because the resources are subject to effective contro ool. Evidence suggesting that burning occurs
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 3 example, during the fire season in 2000, an estimated 200 million ha were burnt in Africa south of the equator. The severe wildfires witnessed over the past few years have resulted in far greater public awareness of the causes and effects of forest fires, a focus on policy-related issues and the mobilization of efforts at the national, regional and international levels. A current debate in the United States is focused on the extent to which tree thinning, timber harvesting and prescribed burning might reduce fire hazards in the future. Adherence to a policy of fire exclusion for many decades has led to an unnatural accumulation of fuels within firedependent ecosystems. Fires in forests of longneedled pines now burn at much higher intensities than they did before 1900, when fires occurred more frequently. Because they are larger and more intense, the fires today are more difficult to control and are more damaging. While there is a common perception among the public that fires are bad for all forests, in fireadapted forest ecosystems they are a form of natural disturbance that helps maintain and renew the ecosystem and can actually improve habitat quality in the long term. While the short-term effects of fire may be impressively destructive, the long-term ecological effects in these ecosystems may be beneficial. A number of studies on the Indonesian fires of 1997-1998 have examined the underlying social and economic causes of these fires (e.g. Rowell and Moore, 2000; Barber and Schweithelm, 2000; and studies under way by the Center for International Forestry Research [CIFOR]). They draw a strong link between fires and land use policies and land management practices. The causes include small-scale agricultural fires that burned out of control, the use of fire to clear land for large-scale plantations (e.g. oil-palm) and conflicts between land users. Fires occurring elsewhere in Southeast Asia and in parts of the Americas and Africa are often related to agricultural practices and land clearing, as fire is traditionally used as a land management tool. Evidence suggesting that burning occurs significantly less often in community-managed forests has led to programmes involving local communities in efforts to reduce the risk of wildfire (e.g. Project Firefight of the World Conservation Union [IUCN] and the World Wide Fund for Nature [WWF]). Community-based fire management projects, most of them designed as Integrated Forest Fire Management projects, are under way in several countries, including Brazil, The classic approach to fire prevention and fire suppression has been largely unsuccessful in many developing countries. This failure can mainly be explained by the lack of resources necessary to operate state-controlled fire monitoring systems. In addition, land and natural resources are state-owned in most countries, so local people are not inclined to invest in their management. Experience has shown, however, that people’s attitudes can be changed if governments grant ownership or long-term user rights to the resources. The Gambia introduced community forestry on a pilot basis in 1991 and began implementing it on a countrywide scale in 1994. With the enactment of forest legislation in 1998, the Government of the Gambia fully endorsed the transfer of forest ownership to rural communities. A recent case study on the management of forest fires through the involvement of local communities compares the attitudes of villagers who are involved in community forest management with those who are not involved (FAO, 2000a). The survey reveals that the population in general is very much aware of the damage caused by fire, and of its dependency on forest resources. It is not a lack of awareness that inhibits communities from participating in the fight against wildfires; it is a lack of incentive. The study shows that the occurrence of fires has declined considerably in the area of the country in which community forestry was started. In this area, only two fires have been reported since 1992 – and both were fought successfully by the local communities concerned. The study further indicates that community management contributes to the stronger enforcement of laws and by-laws related to fire prevention because the resources are subject to more effective control. BOX 1 Community forestry and fire prevention and suppression in the Gambia
STATE OF THE WORLD's FoRESTs 2001 Indonesia, Mongolia and Namibia. These (SDR). GFMC monitors, forecasts and archives participatory projects involve farmers and villagers information on vegetation fires at the global in efforts to improve their use of fire (in level; provides early warning and fire agricultural land clearing, for example) and in fire monitoring services; and offers advice to prevention and suppression tasks. The successful policy-makers around the world. experience of the Gambia(see Box 1)suggests that The Fire Hazard Team, established in community-based natural resources management December 1999 by the Disaster Management may be a promising alternative to traditional fire Support Group of the Committee on Earth control methods Observation Satellites(CEOS). Comprising Many countries do not have policies or major institutions around the world that are systematic fire management strategies that enable active in the field of remote sensing of them to respond quickly or aggressively to vegetation fire occurrence and fire effects, the outbreaks of fires, although the situation is starting team will advance the use of remote sensing to change. Increasingly, countries are developing in wildland fire management. policies and practices to improve their institutional In 2000, ISDR conducted a global public capacities to prevent, prepare for and combat awareness campaign on disaster reduction, forest fires. Since the disastrous 1998 fire season the theme of which “ Disaster prevention the ministries of the environment and of Youth and education wildfires griculture in Mexico, for example, have Policy-makers are beginning to realize that a collaborated to reduce the threat of agricultural continued emphasis on emergency response will burning to forests. In Brazil, measures have been not prevent large and damaging fires in the future taken to support fire prevention programmes with The way out of the emergency response trap is to the public and to train farmers in improved couple emergency preparedness and response agricultural burning practices. Early in 2000, in with more sustainable land use Indonesia a new Directorate of Forest and Estate policies and practices. Actively working towards Fire Operations was set up under the Ministry of more sustainable forestry practices is an important Forestry and Estate Crops to strengthen the part of the strategy for improving the conservation countrys fire management capabilities. of natural resources and reducing the impacts of Recent initiatives have also been launched to wildfires promote better regional cooperation in forest fire control. For example, a new pan-Baltic forest fire Windstorms in Europe. Severe windstorms swept initiative was begun in 1998, involving the through Europe in December 1999. The first storm preparation of mechanisms for mutual assistance hit Denmark and Sweden on 3 and 4 December, in large fire emergencies. The Association of and two subsequent storms struck further south Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) set up the between 26 and 28 December, centred on france, Forest Fire Management Centre in Thailand in the germany and Switzerland. These five countries wake of the 1997-1998 fires to provide fire were the most severely affected, but many other management training and research for the asean countries sustained substantial damage. In these countries few days, the storms wreaked destruction on Several international initiatives related to forest lands and uprooted thousands of trees wildland fire awareness, prevention, preparedness, outside forests, leaving a changed landscape in management and response were initiated over the their wake. An estimated 193 million m of last two years. material was felled, and windfalls in some Three notable examples are: countries equalled several years harvests. In total, The Global Fire Monitoring Center(GFMC) established in October 1998 in Freiburg, Much of the information in this dis Germany as an activity of the UN ECE/FAO 2000a and the UN-ECE Timber Section Web site. at International Strategy for Disaster Reduction www.unece.org/trade/timber/storm/stormhtm
4 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 Indonesia, Mongolia and Namibia. These participatory projects involve farmers and villagers in efforts to improve their use of fire (in agricultural land clearing, for example) and in fire prevention and suppression tasks. The successful experience of the Gambia (see Box 1) suggests that community-based natural resources management may be a promising alternative to traditional fire control methods. Many countries do not have policies or systematic fire management strategies that enable them to respond quickly or aggressively to outbreaks of fires, although the situation is starting to change. Increasingly, countries are developing policies and practices to improve their institutional capacities to prevent, prepare for and combat forest fires. Since the disastrous 1998 fire season, the Ministries of the Environment and of Agriculture in Mexico, for example, have collaborated to reduce the threat of agricultural burning to forests. In Brazil, measures have been taken to support fire prevention programmes with the public and to train farmers in improved agricultural burning practices. Early in 2000, in Indonesia a new Directorate of Forest and Estate Fire Operations was set up under the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops to strengthen the country’s fire management capabilities. Recent initiatives have also been launched to promote better regional cooperation in forest fire control. For example, a new pan-Baltic forest fire initiative was begun in 1998, involving the preparation of mechanisms for mutual assistance in large fire emergencies. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) set up the Forest Fire Management Centre in Thailand in the wake of the 1997-1998 fires to provide fire management training and research for the ASEAN countries. Several international initiatives related to wildland fire awareness, prevention, preparedness, management and response were initiated over the last two years. Three notable examples are: • The Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), established in October 1998 in Freiburg, Germany as an activity of the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). GFMC monitors, forecasts and archives information on vegetation fires at the global level; provides early warning and fire monitoring services; and offers advice to policy-makers around the world. • The Fire Hazard Team, established in December 1999 by the Disaster Management Support Group of the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS). Comprising major institutions around the world that are active in the field of remote sensing of vegetation fire occurrence and fire effects, the team will advance the use of remote sensing in wildland fire management. • In 2000, ISDR conducted a global public awareness campaign on disaster reduction, the theme of which was “Disaster Prevention – Youth and Education: Wildfires”. Policy-makers are beginning to realize that a continued emphasis on emergency response will not prevent large and damaging fires in the future. The way out of the emergency response trap is to couple emergency preparedness and response programmes with more sustainable land use policies and practices. Actively working towards more sustainable forestry practices is an important part of the strategy for improving the conservation of natural resources and reducing the impacts of wildfires. Windstorms in Europe. 3 Severe windstorms swept through Europe in December 1999. The first storm hit Denmark and Sweden on 3 and 4 December, and two subsequent storms struck further south between 26 and 28 December, centred on France, Germany and Switzerland. These five countries were the most severely affected, but many other countries sustained substantial damage. In these few days, the storms wreaked destruction on forest lands and uprooted thousands of trees outside forests, leaving a changed landscape in their wake. An estimated 193 million m3 of material was felled, and windfalls in some countries equalled several years’ harvests. In total, 3 Much of the information in this discussion is based on UNECE/FAO, 2000a; and the UN-ECE Timber Section Web site, at: www.unece.org/trade/timber/storm/storm.htm