The context for design 7 Figure 2.12 Alison and Peter Smithson,Hunstanton School,1954.From The New Brutalism,Banham,R., Architectural Press,p.34. Figure 2.10 Louis Kahn,Richards Medical Research Centre,University of Pennsylvania,1961.From Architecture Since 1945,Joedicke,J.,Pall Mall. alternative to the effete trappings of the Festival of Britain. And within this complex picture loomed a burgeoning technology which further fuelled the modernist's imagination.Architects were quick to embrace techniques from other disci- plines,most notably structural and mechanical engineering and applied physics to generate new building types.The development of framed and large-span structures freed archi- tects from the constraints of traditional build- ing techniques where limited spans and load- bearing masonry had imposed variations on an essentially cellular plan type.Now archi- tects could plan buildings where walls and Figure 2.11 Alison and Peter Smithson,Hunstanton School,1954.From The New Brutalism,Banham,R., partitions were divorced from any structural Architectural Press,p.32. intrusion
alternative to the effete trappings of the Festival of Britain. And within this complex picture loomed a burgeoning technology which further fuelled the modernist’s imagination. Architects were quick to embrace techniques from other disciplines, most notably structural and mechanical engineering and applied physics to generate new building types. The development of framed and large-span structures freed architects from the constraints of traditional building techniques where limited spans and loadbearing masonry had imposed variations on an essentially cellular plan type. Now architects could plan buildings where walls and partitions were divorced from any structural intrusion. The context for design 7 Figure 2.10 Louis Kahn, Richards Medical Research Centre, University of Pennsylvania, 1961. From Architecture Since 1945, Joedicke, J., Pall Mall. Figure 2.11 Alison and Peter Smithson, Hunstanton School, 1954. From The New Brutalism, Banham, R., Architectural Press, p. 32. Figure 2.12 Alison and Peter Smithson, Hunstanton School, 1954. From The New Brutalism, Banham, R., Architectural Press, p. 34
8 Architecture:Design Notebook Whilst this revolution was facilitated by an a single source of water or steam power.The early nineteenth-century technology,later inherent flexibility of locating electric motors inventions like the elevator,the electric motor anywhere within the industrial process allowed and the discharge tube were to have profound the development of the single-storey deep- effects upon a whole range of building types plan factory.Moreover,the deep-plan model and therefore upon their formal outcome.For applied to any building type was facilitated not example,the elevator allowed the practical only by the development of mechanical venti- realisation of high-rise building whose poten- lation (another spin-off from the electric tial had previously been thwarted by the limita- motor),but also by the development of the dis- tions of the staircase (Figure 2.13).But the charge tube and its application as the fluores- invention of the electric motor in the late nine- cent tube to artificial lighting.Freed from the teenth century not only facilitated the develop- constraints of natural ventilation and natural ment of a cheap and practical elevator but also lighting,architects were free to explore the fundamentally changed the multi-level nine- formal potential of deep-plan types. teenth-century factory type which had been This is but a crude representation of the gen- so configured because of the need to harness eral milieu in which any designer operates,a context which became progressively enriched as the twentieth century unfolded.But what of the specific programme for building design which presents itself to the architect?And how do architects reconcile the generality of contextual pressures with the specific nature of,say,a client's needs,and how,in turn,are such specific requirements given formal expression? When James Stirling designed the History Faculty Library at the University of Cambridge 1D0000 (completed 1968),the plan form responded directly to the client's need to prevent a spate of book theft by undergraduates.Therefore an elevated control overlooks the demi-semi- Figure 2.13 Adler and Sullivan,Wainwright Building, Chicago,1891.From Architecture Nineteenth and circular reading room but also the radial Twentieth Centuries,Hitchcock,H.R.,Penguin,p.343. bookstacks,offering not only potential sec-
Whilst this revolution was facilitated by an early nineteenth-century technology, later inventions like the elevator, the electric motor and the discharge tube were to have profound effects upon a whole range of building types and therefore upon their formal outcome. For example, the elevator allowed the practical realisation of high-rise building whose potential had previously been thwarted by the limitations of the staircase (Figure 2.13). But the invention of the electric motor in the late nineteenth century not only facilitated the development of a cheap and practical elevator but also fundamentally changed the multi-level nineteenth-century factory type which had been so configured because of the need to harness a single source of water or steam power. The inherent flexibility of locating electric motors anywhere within the industrial process allowed the development of the single-storey deepplan factory. Moreover, the deep-plan model applied to any building type was facilitated not only by the development of mechanical ventilation (another spin-off from the electric motor), but also by the development of the discharge tube and its application as the fluorescent tube to artificial lighting. Freed from the constraints of natural ventilation and natural lighting, architects were free to explore the formal potential of deep-plan types. This is but a crude representation of the general milieu in which any designer operates, a context which became progressively enriched as the twentieth century unfolded. But what of the specific programme for building design which presents itself to the architect? And how do architects reconcile the generality of contextual pressures with the specific nature of, say, a client’s needs, and how, in turn, are such specific requirements given formal expression? When James Stirling designed the History Faculty Library at the University of Cambridge (completed 1968), the plan form responded directly to the client’s need to prevent a spate of book theft by undergraduates. Therefore an elevated control overlooks the demi-semicircular reading room but also the radial bookstacks, offering not only potential sec- 8 Architecture: Design Notebook Figure 2.13 Adler and Sullivan, Wainwright Building, Chicago, 1891. From Architecture Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Hitchcock, H. R., Penguin, p. 343
The context for design 9 urity for books but also a dramatic formal outcome (Figures 2.14,2.15). In 1971 Norman Foster designed an office building for a computer manufacturer in Hemel Hempstead whose principal require- ment was for a temporary structure.Foster used a membrane held up by air pressure,a technique not normally applied to architec- ture,but which offered the potential for speedy dismantling and re-erection on another site. The translucent tent provided diffused day- lighting and lamp standards were designed to give support in the event of collapse (Figure 2.16).Whilst this contextual 'snap- Figure 2.15 James Stirling,History Faculty Library Cambridge,1968,Axonometric. shot'firmly articulates an orthodox modernist position,the so-called post-modern world has Figure 2.14 James Stirling,History Faculty Library Figure 2.16 Norman Foster,Computer Technology Ltd, Cambridge,1968,Ground floor plan. Office,London,1970,Section
urity for books but also a dramatic formal outcome (Figures 2.14, 2.15). In 1971 Norman Foster designed an office building for a computer manufacturer in Hemel Hempstead whose principal requirement was for a temporary structure. Foster used a membrane held up by air pressure, a technique not normally applied to architecture, but which offered the potential for speedy dismantling and re-erection on another site. The translucent tent provided diffused daylighting and lamp standards were designed to give support in the event of collapse (Figure 2.16). Whilst this contextual ‘snapshot’ firmly articulates an orthodox modernist position, the so-called post-modern world has The context for design 9 Figure 2.14 James Stirling, History Faculty Library Cambridge, 1968, Ground floor plan. Figure 2.15 James Stirling, History Faculty Library Cambridge, 1968, Axonometric. Figure 2.16 Norman Foster, Computer Technology Ltd, Office, London, 1970, Section
10 Architecture:Design Notebook offered a range of alternatives borrowed from literature and philosophy which in turn has offered architects a whole new vocabulary of form-making well removed from what many had come to regard as a doctrinaire modernist position.In this new pluralist world which revealed itself in the last quarter of the twenti- eth century,architects found themselves con- sumed by a 'freestyle'which on the one hand in revivalist mode quarried the whole gamut of architectural history(Figure 2.17),or on the other borrowed so-called 'de-construction from the world of literature (Figure 2.18). Within this post-modern celebration of diver- Figure 2.18 Zaha Hadid,Kurfurstendamm,Project sity,others sought a return to vernacular build- 1988.From Architectural Design:Deconstruction in Architecture. ing forms,often applied to the most inappropriate of building types(Figure 2.19). But as we enter the new millenium,deeper concerns of energy conservation and sustain- ability have to a large extent eclipsed the sty- 国国面可 Figure 2.17 John Outram,Terrace of Factories,1980. Figure 2.19 Robert Matthew,Johnson-Marshall and From Architectural Design:Free-style Classicism. Partners,Hillingdon Town Hall,1978
offered a range of alternatives borrowed from literature and philosophy which in turn has offered architects a whole new vocabulary of form-making well removed from what many had come to regard as a doctrinaire modernist position. In this new pluralist world which revealed itself in the last quarter of the twentieth century, architects found themselves consumed by a ‘freestyle’ which on the one hand in revivalist mode quarried the whole gamut of architectural history (Figure 2.17), or on the other borrowed so-called ‘de-construction’ from the world of literature (Figure 2.18). Within this post-modern celebration of diversity, others sought a return to vernacular building forms, often applied to the most inappropriate of building types (Figure 2.19). But as we enter the new millenium, deeper concerns of energy conservation and sustainability have to a large extent eclipsed the sty- 10 Architecture: Design Notebook Figure 2.17 John Outram, Terrace of Factories, 1980. From Architectural Design: Free-style Classicism. Figure 2.18 Zaha Hadid, Kurfu¨rstendamm, Project 1988. From Architectural Design: Deconstruction in Architecture. Figure 2.19 Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall and Partners, Hillingdon Town Hall, 1978
The context for design 11 listic obsessions of post-modern architects. Consequently,buildings which are thermally efficient,harness solar energy and rely on natural lighting and ventilation,reflect a return to the tectonic concerns of pioneering mod- ernists.Moreover,like their modernist fore- Figure 2.20 Emslie Morgan,St Georges School, Wallasey,1961.From The Architecture of the Well- bears,such buildings offer a fresh potential tempered Environment,Banham R.,Architectural Press for form-making,always the primary concern of any architect(Figure 2.20). Having briefly explored a shifting context for designer to get under way.Moreover,the architectural design during the twentieth designer will have to consider much of what century,the whole complex process of estab- follows simultaneously and,indeed,recon- lishing an appropriate form will be examined. sider partially worked-out solutions as the Although parts of the process are identified design progresses,so that solving even rela- separately for reasons of clarity,each design tively simple architectural problems emerges programme generates its own priorities and as a complex process far removed from a therefore a different point of departure for the simple linear model
listic obsessions of post-modern architects. Consequently, buildings which are thermally efficient, harness solar energy and rely on natural lighting and ventilation, reflect a return to the tectonic concerns of pioneering modernists. Moreover, like their modernist forebears, such buildings offer a fresh potential for form-making, always the primary concern of any architect (Figure 2.20). Having briefly explored a shifting context for architectural design during the twentieth century, the whole complex process of establishing an appropriate form will be examined. Although parts of the process are identified separately for reasons of clarity, each design programme generates its own priorities and therefore a different point of departure for the designer to get under way. Moreover, the designer will have to consider much of what follows simultaneously and, indeed, reconsider partially worked-out solutions as the design progresses, so that solving even relatively simple architectural problems emerges as a complex process far removed from a simple linear model. The context for design 11 Figure 2.20 Emslie Morgan, St Georges School, Wallasey, 1961. From The Architecture of the Welltempered Environment, Banham R., Architectural Press