Dismemberment was provided for in the Virginia Code of 1705.Maryland passed a law in 1723 providing for cutting off the ears of blacks who struck whites,and that for certain serious crimes,slaves should be hanged and the body quartered and exposed. Still,rebellions took place-not many,but enough to create constant fear among white planters.The first large-scale revolt in the North American colonies took place in New York in 1712.In New York,slaves were 10 percent of the population,the highest proportion in the northern states,where economic conditions usually did not require large numbers of field slaves.About twenty-five blacks and two Indians set fire to a building, then killed nine whites who came on the scene.They were captured by soldiers,put on trial,and twenty-one were executed.The governor's report to England said:"Some were burnt,others were hanged,one broke on the wheel,and one hung alive in chains in the town..."One had been burned over a slow fire for eight to ten hours-all this to serve notice to other slaves. A letter to London from South Carolina in 1720 reports: I am now to acquaint you that very lately we have had a very wicked and barbarous plot of the designe of the negroes rising with a designe to destroy all the hite people in the country and then to take Charles Town in full body but it pleased God it was discovered and many of them taken prisoners and some burnt and some hang'd and some banish'd. Around this time there were a number of fires in Bostog and New Haven,suspected to be the work of Negro slaves.As a result,one Negro was executed in Boston,and the Boston Council ruled that any slaves who on their owk gathered in groups of two or more were to be punished by whipping. At Stono,South Carolina,in 1739,about twenly slaves rebelled,killed two warehouse guards,stole guns and gunpowder,and headed south,killing people in their way,and burning buildings.They were joined by others,until there were perhaps eighty slaves in all and,according to one accoun of the time,"they called out Liberty,marched on with Colours displayed,and two Drorms beating."The militia found and attacked them.In the ensuing battle perhaps fifty slaves and twenty-five whites were killed before the uprising was crushed. Herbert Aptheker,who did detailed research on slave resistance in North America for his book American Negro Slave Revolts,found about 250 instances where a minimum of ten slaves joined inolt or conspiracy. From time to time,whites were involved in the slave resistance.As early as 1663, indentured white servants and black slaves in Gloucester County,Virginia,formed a conspiracy to rebel and gain their freedom.The plot was betrayed,and ended with executions.Mullin reports that the newspaper notices of runaways in Virginia often warned "ill-disposed"whites about harboring fugitives.Sometimes slaves and free men ran off together,or cooperated in crimes together.Sometimes,black male slaves ran off and joined white women.From time to time,white ship captains and watermen dealt with runaways,perhaps making the slave a part of the crew. In New York in 1741,there were ten thousand whites in the city and two thousand black slaves.It had been a hard winter and the poor-slave and free-had suffered greatly.When mysterious fires broke out,blacks and whites were accused of conspiring together.Mass hysteria developed against the accused.After a trial full of lurid accusations by informers,and forced confessions,two white men and two white women were executed,eighteen slaves were hanged,and thirteen slaves were burned alive
Dismemberment was provided for in the Virginia Code of 1705. Maryland passed a law in 1723 providing for cutting off the ears of blacks who struck whites, and that for certain serious crimes, slaves should be hanged and the body quartered and exposed. Still, rebellions took place—not many, but enough to create constant fear among white planters. The first large-scale revolt in the North American colonies took place in New York in 1712. In New York, slaves were 10 percent of the population, the highest proportion in the northern states, where economic conditions usually did not require large numbers of field slaves. About twenty- five blacks and two Indians set fire to a building, then killed nine whites who came on the scene. They were captured by soldiers, put on trial, and twenty-one were executed. The governor's report to England said: "Some were burnt, others were hanged, one broke on the wheel, and one hung alive in chains in the town..." One had been burned over a slow fire for eight to ten hours—all this to serve notice to other slaves. A letter to London from South Carolina in 1720 reports: I am now to acquaint you that very lately we have had a very wicked and barbarous plot of the designe of the negroes rising with a designe to destroy all the white people in the country and then to take Charles Town in full body but it pleased God it was discovered and many of them taken prisoners and some burnt and some hang'd and some banish'd. Around this time there were a number of fires in Boston and New Haven, suspected to be the work of Negro slaves. As a result, one Negro was executed in Boston, and the Boston Council ruled that any slaves who on their own gathered in groups of two or more were to be punished by whipping. At Stono, South Carolina, in 1739, about twenty slaves rebelled, killed two warehouse guards, stole guns and gunpowder, and headed south, killing people in their way, and burning buildings. They were joined by others, until there were perhaps eighty slaves in all and, according to one account of the time, "they called out Liberty, marched on with Colours displayed, and two Drums beating." The militia found and attacked them. In the ensuing battle perhaps fifty slaves and twenty-five whites were killed before the uprising was crushed. Herbert Aptheker, who did detailed research on slave resistance in North America for his book American Negro Slave Revolts, found about 250 instances where a minimum of ten slaves joined in a revolt or conspiracy. From time to time, whites were involved in the slave resistance. As early as 1663, indentured white servants and black slaves in Gloucester County, Virginia, formed a conspiracy to rebel and gain their freedom. The plot was betrayed, and ended with executions. Mullin reports that the newspaper notices of runaways in Virginia often warned "ill-disposed" whites about harboring fugitives. Sometimes slaves and free men ran off together, or cooperated in crimes together. Sometimes, black male slaves ran off and joined white women. From time to time, white ship captains and watermen dealt with runaways, perhaps making the slave a part of the crew. In New York in 1741, there were ten thousand whites in the city and two thousand black slaves. It had been a hard winter and the poor—slave and free—had suffered greatly. When mysterious fires broke out, blacks and whites were accused of conspiring together. Mass hysteria developed against the accused. After a trial full of lurid accusations by informers, and forced confessions, two white men and two white women were executed, eighteen slaves were hanged, and thirteen slaves were burned alive. No Profit Use Only
Only one fear was greater than the fear of black rebellion in the new American colonies.That was the fear that discontented whites would join black slaves to overthrow the existing order.In the early years of slavery,especially,before racism as a way of thinking was firmly ingrained,while white indentured servants were often treated as badly as black slaves,there was a possibility of cooperation.As Edmund Morgan sees it: There are hints that the two despised groups initially saw each other as sharing the same predicament.It was common,for example,for servants and slaves to run away together, steal hogs together,get drunk together.It was not uncommon for them to make love together.In Bacon's Rebellion,one of the last groups to surrender was a mixed band of eighty negroes and twenty English servants. As Morgan says,masters,"initially at least,perceived slaves in much the same way they had always perceived servants...shiftless,irresponsible,unfaithful,ungrateful, dishonest..."And "if freemen with disappointed hopes should make common cause with slaves of desperate hope,the results might be worse than anything Bacon had done." And so,measures were taken.About the same time that slave codes,involving discipline and punishment,were passed by the Virginia Assembly, Virginia's ruling class,having proclaimed that all white men were superior to black,went on to offer their social (but white)inferiors a number of bonefts previously denied them. In 1705 a law was passed requiring masters to provide whhe servants whose indenture time was up with ten bushels of corn,thirty shillings,and a gun,while women servants were to get 15 bushels of corn and forty shillings.Als the newly freed servants were to get 50 acres of land. Morgan concludes:"Once the small planter fe less exploited by taxation and began to prosper a little,he became less turbulent less dangerous,more respectable.He could begin to see his big neighbor not as an extortionist but as a powerful protector of their common interests." We see now a complex web of historical threads to ensnare blacks for slavery in America:the desperation of staring settlers,the special helplessness of the displaced African,the powerful incemive o profit for slave trader and planter,the temptation of superior status for poor whites,the elaborate controls against escape and rebellion,the legal and social punishment of black and white collaboration. The point is tha thelements of this web are historical,not "natural."This does not mean that they are easHy disentangled,dismantled.It means only that there is a possibility for something else,under historical conditions not yet realized.And one of these conditions would be the elimination of that class exploitation which has made poor whites desperate for small gifts of status,and has prevented that unity of black and white necessary for joint rebellion and reconstruction. Around 1700,the Virginia House of Burgesses declared: The Christian Servants in this country for the most part consists of the Worser Sort of the people of Europe.And since...such numbers of Irish and other Nations have been brought in of which a great many have been soldiers in the late warrs that according to our present Circumstances we can hardly governe them and if they were fitted with Armes and had the Opertunity of meeting together by Musters we have just reason to fears they may rise upon us. It was a kind of class consciousness,a class fear.There were things happening in early Virginia,and in the other colonies,to warrant it
Only one fear was greater than the fear of black rebellion in the new American colonies. That was the fear that discontented whites would join black slaves to overthrow the existing order. In the early years of slavery, especially, before racism as a way of thinking was firmly ingrained, while white indentured servants were often treated as badly as black slaves, there was a possibility of cooperation. As Edmund Morgan sees it: There are hints that the two despised groups initially saw each other as sharing the same predicament. It was common, for example, for servants and slaves to run away together, steal hogs together, get drunk together. It was not uncommon for them to make love together. In Bacon's Rebellion, one of the last groups to surrender was a mixed band of eighty negroes and twenty English servants. As Morgan says, masters, "initially at least, perceived slaves in much the same way they had always perceived servants... shiftless, irresponsible, unfaithful, ungrateful, dishonest..." And "if freemen with disappointed hopes should make common cause with slaves of desperate hope, the results might be worse than anything Bacon had done." And so, measures were taken. About the same time that slave codes, involving discipline and punishment, were passed by the Virginia Assembly, Virginia's ruling class, having proclaimed that all white men were superior to black, went on to offer their social (but white) inferiors a number of benefits previously denied them. In 1705 a law was passed requiring masters to provide white servants whose indenture time was up with ten bushels of corn, thirty shillings, and a gun, while women servants were to get 15 bushels of corn and forty shillings. Also, the newly freed servants were to get 50 acres of land. Morgan concludes: "Once the small planter felt less exploited by taxation and began to prosper a little, he became less turbulent, less dangerous, more respectable. He could begin to see his big neighbor not as an extortionist but as a powerful protector of their common interests." We see now a complex web of historical threads to ensnare blacks for slavery in America: the desperation of starving settlers, the special helplessness of the displaced African, the powerful incentive of profit for slave trader and planter, the temptation of superior status for poor whites, the elaborate controls against escape and rebellion, the legal and social punishment of black and white collaboration. The point is that the elements of this web are historical, not "natural." This does not mean that they are easily disentangled, dismantled. It means only that there is a possibility for something else, under historical conditions not yet realized. And one of these conditions would be the elimination of that class exploitation which has made poor whites desperate for small gifts of status, and has prevented that unity of black and white necessary for joint rebellion and reconstruction. Around 1700, the Virginia House of Burgesses declared: The Christian Servants in this country for the most part consists of the Worser Sort of the people of Europe. And since... such numbers of Irish and other Nations have been brought in of which a great many have been soldiers in the late warrs that according to our present Circumstances we can hardly governe them and if they were fitted with Armes and had the Opertunity of meeting together by Musters we have just reason to fears they may rise upon us. It was a kind of class consciousness, a class fear. There were things happening in early Virginia, and in the other colonies, to warrant it. No Profit Use Only
3.Persons of Mean and Vile Condition In 1676,seventy years after Virginia was founded,a hundred years before it supplied leadership for the American Revolution,that colony faced a rebellion of white frontiersmen,joined by slaves and servants,a rebellion so threatening that the governor had to flee the burning capital of Jamestown,and England decided to send a thousand soldiers across the Atlantic,hoping to maintain order among forty thousand colonists. This was Bacon's Rebellion.After the uprising was suppressed,its leader,Nathaniel Bacon,dead,and his associates hanged,Bacon was described in a Royal Commission report: He was said to be about four or five and thirty years of age,indifferent tall but slender black-hair'd and of an ominous,pensive,melancholly Aspect,of a pestilent and prevalent Logical discourse tending to atheisme....He seduced the Vulgar and most ignorant people to believe(two thirds of each county being of that Sort)Soc that their whole hearts and hopes were set now upon Bacon.Next he charges the Governour as negligent and wicked,treacherous and incapable,the Lawes and Taxes as unjuse and oppressive and cryes up absolute necessity of redress.Thus Bacon eneenaged the Tumult and as the unquiet crowd follow and adhere to him,he listeth them as they come in upon a large paper,writing their name circular wise,that their Ringleaders might not be found out. Having connur'd them into this circle,given them Brakdy to wind up the charme,and enjoyned them by an oath to stick fast togetherand Ohim and the oath being administered,he went and infected New Kent Couty ripe for Rebellion. Bacon's Rebellion began with conflict over how to deal with the Indians,who were close by,on the western frontier,constantly threatening.Whites who had been ignored when huge land grants arourd Jamestown were given away had gone west to find land,and there they encountered Indians.Were those frontier Virginians resentful that the politicos and landed aristocrats ho-controlled the colony's government in Jamestown first pushed them westward plo Didian territory,and then seemed indecisive in fighting the Indians?That might explat the character of their rebellion,not easily classifiable as either antiaristocrat or antiIndian,because it was both. And the goverffor,villiam Berkeley,and his Jamestown crowd-were they more conciliatory to the Indrans(they wooed certain of them as spies and allies)now that they had monopolized the land in the East,could use frontier whites as a buffer,and needed peace?The desperation of the government in suppressing the rebellion seemed to have a double motive:developing an Indian policy which would divide Indians in order to control them (in New England at this very time,Massasoit's son Metacom was threatening to unite Indian tribes,and had done frightening damage to Puritan settlements in "King Philip's War");and teaching the poor whites of Virginia that rebellion did not pay-by a show of superior force,by calling for troops from England itself,by mass hanging. Violence had escalated on the frontier before the rebellion.Some Doeg Indians took a few hogs to redress a debt,and whites,retrieving the hogs,murdered two Indians.The Doegs then sent out a war party to kill a white herdsman,after which a white militia company killed twenty-four Indians.This led to a series of Indian raids,with the Indians, outnumbered,turning to guerrilla warfare.The House of Burgesses in Jamestown
3. Persons of Mean and Vile Condition In 1676, seventy years after Virginia was founded, a hundred years before it supplied leadership for the American Revolution, that colony faced a rebellion of white frontiersmen, joined by slaves and servants, a rebellion so threatening that the governor had to flee the burning capital of Jamestown, and England decided to send a thousand soldiers across the Atlantic, hoping to maintain order among forty thousand colonists. This was Bacon's Rebellion. After the uprising was suppressed, its leader, Nathaniel Bacon, dead, and his associates hanged, Bacon was described in a Royal Commission report: He was said to be about four or five and thirty years of age, indifferent tall but slender, black-hair'd and of an ominous, pensive, melancholly Aspect, of a pestilent and prevalent Logical discourse tending to atheisme... . He seduced the Vulgar and most ignorant people to believe (two thirds of each county being of that Sort) Soc that their whole hearts and hopes were set now upon Bacon. Next he charges the Governour as negligent and wicked, treacherous and incapable, the Lawes and Taxes as unjust and oppressive and cryes up absolute necessity of redress. Thus Bacon encouraged the Tumult and as the unquiet crowd follow and adhere to him, he listeth them as they come in upon a large paper, writing their name circular wise, that their Ringleaders might not be found out. Having connur'd them into this circle, given them Brandy to wind up the charme, and enjoyned them by an oath to stick fast together and to him and the oath being administered, he went and infected New Kent County ripe for Rebellion. Bacon's Rebellion began with conflict over how to deal with the Indians, who were close by, on the western frontier, constantly threatening. Whites who had been ignored when huge land grants around Jamestown were given away had gone west to find land, and there they encountered Indians. Were those frontier Virginians resentful that the politicos and landed aristocrats who controlled the colony's government in Jamestown first pushed them westward into Indian territory, and then seemed indecisive in fighting the Indians? That might explain the character of their rebellion, not easily classifiable as either antiaristocrat or anti-Indian, because it was both. And the governor, William Berkeley, and his Jamestown crowd-were they more conciliatory to the Indians (they wooed certain of them as spies and allies) now that they had monopolized the land in the East, could use frontier whites as a buffer, and needed peace? The desperation of the government in suppressing the rebellion seemed to have a double motive: developing an Indian policy which would divide Indians in order to control them (in New England at this very time, Massasoit's son Metacom was threatening to unite Indian tribes, and had done frightening damage to Puritan settlements in "King Philip's War"); and teaching the poor whites of Virginia that rebellion did not pay-by a show of superior force, by calling for troops from England itself, by mass hanging. Violence had escalated on the frontier before the rebellion. Some Doeg Indians took a few hogs to redress a debt, and whites, retrieving the hogs, murdered two Indians. The Doegs then sent out a war party to kill a white herdsman, after which a white militia company killed twenty-four Indians. This led to a series of Indian raids, with the Indians, outnumbered, turning to guerrilla warfare. The House of Burgesses in Jamestown No Profit Use Only
declared war on the Indians,but proposed to exempt those Indians who cooperated.This seemed to anger the frontiers people,who wanted total war but also resented the high taxes assessed to pay for the war. Times were hard in 1676."There was genuine distress,genuine poverty....All contemporary sources speak of the great mass of people as living in severe economic straits,"writes Wilcomb Washburn,who,using British colonial records,has done an exhaustive study of Bacon's Rebellion.It was a dry summer,ruining the corn crop,which was needed for food,and the tobacco crop,needed for export.Governor Berkeley,in his seventies,tired of holding office,wrote wearily about his situation:"How miserable that man is that Governes a People where six parts of seaven at least are Poore Endebted Discontented and Armed." His phrase "six parts of seaven"suggests the existence of an upper class not so impoverished.In fact,there was such a class already developed in Virginia.Bacon himself came from this class,had a good bit of land,and was probably more enthusiastic about killing Indians than about redressing the grievances of the poor.But he became a symbol of mass resentment against the Virginia establishment,andas elected in the spring of 1676 to the House of Burgesses.When he insisted on organiing armed detachments to fight the Indians,outside official control,proclaimed him a rebel and had him captured,whereupon two thousand Virginians marched into Jamestown to support him.Berkeley let Bacon go,in return for an apology,but Bacon went off,gathered his militia,and began raiding the Indians. Bacon's "Declaration of the People"of July 1690shows a mixture of populist resentment against the rich and frontier hatred oftbe Indians.It indicted the Berkeley administration for unjust taxes,for putting favorites in high positions,for monopolizing the beaver trade,and for not protecting the western formers from the Indians.Then Bacon went out to attack the friendly Pamufkey ndians,killing eight,taking others prisoner, plundering their possessions. There is evidence that the raak and file of both Bacon's rebel army and Berkeley's official army were not as erhsiastic as their leaders.There were mass desertions on both sides,according to Washburn.In the fall,Bacon,aged twenty-nine,fell sick and died,because of,as acqmtemporary put it,"swarmes of Vermyn that bred in his body."A minister,apparently pes a sympathizer,wrote this epitaph: Bacon is Dead I am sorry at my heart, That lice and flux should take the hangmans part. The rebellion didn't last long after that.A ship armed with thirty guns,cruising the York River,became the base for securing order,and its captain,Thomas Grantham, used force and deception to disarm the last rebel forces.Coming upon the chief garrison of the rebellion,he found four hundred armed Englishmen and Negroes,a mixture of free men,servants,and slaves.He promised to pardon everyone,to give freedom to slaves and servants,whereupon they surrendered their arms and dispersed,except for eighty Negroes and twenty English who insisted on keeping their arms.Grantham promised to take them to a garrison down the river,but when they got into the boat,he trained his big guns on them,disarmed them,and eventually delivered the slaves and servants to their masters.The remaining garrisons were overcome one by one.Twenty-three rebel leaders were hanged It was a complex chain of oppression in Virginia.The Indians were plundered by
declared war on the Indians, but proposed to exempt those Indians who cooperated. This seemed to anger the frontiers people, who wanted total war but also resented the high taxes assessed to pay for the war. Times were hard in 1676. "There was genuine distress, genuine poverty.... All contemporary sources speak of the great mass of people as living in severe economic straits," writes Wilcomb Washburn, who, using British colonial records, has done an exhaustive study of Bacon's Rebellion. It was a dry summer, ruining the corn crop, which was needed for food, and the tobacco crop, needed for export. Governor Berkeley, in his seventies, tired of holding office, wrote wearily about his situation: "How miserable that man is that Governes a People where six parts of seaven at least are Poore Endebted Discontented and Armed." His phrase "six parts of seaven" suggests the existence of an upper class not so impoverished. In fact, there was such a class already developed in Virginia. Bacon himself came from this class, had a good bit of land, and was probably more enthusiastic about killing Indians than about redressing the grievances of the poor. But he became a symbol of mass resentment against the Virginia establishment, and was elected in the spring of 1676 to the House of Burgesses. When he insisted on organizing armed detachments to fight the Indians, outside official control, Berkeley proclaimed him a rebel and had him captured, whereupon two thousand Virginians marched into Jamestown to support him. Berkeley let Bacon go, in return for an apology, but Bacon went off, gathered his militia, and began raiding the Indians. Bacon's "Declaration of the People" of July 1676 shows a mixture of populist resentment against the rich and frontier hatred of the Indians. It indicted the Berkeley administration for unjust taxes, for putting favorites in high positions, for monopolizing the beaver trade, and for not protecting the western formers from the Indians. Then Bacon went out to attack the friendly Pamunkey Indians, killing eight, taking others prisoner, plundering their possessions. There is evidence that the rank and file of both Bacon's rebel army and Berkeley's official army were not as enthusiastic as their leaders. There were mass desertions on both sides, according to Washburn. In the fall, Bacon, aged twenty-nine, fell sick and died, because of, as a contemporary put it, "swarmes of Vermyn that bred in his body." A minister, apparently not a sympathizer, wrote this epitaph: Bacon is Dead I am sorry at my heart, That lice and flux should take the hangmans part. The rebellion didn't last long after that. A ship armed with thirty guns, cruising the York River, became the base for securing order, and its captain, Thomas Grantham, used force and deception to disarm the last rebel forces. Coming upon the chief garrison of the rebellion, he found four hundred armed Englishmen and Negroes, a mixture of free men, servants, and slaves. He promised to pardon everyone, to give freedom to slaves and servants, whereupon they surrendered their arms and dispersed, except for eighty Negroes and twenty English who insisted on keeping their arms. Grantham promised to take them to a garrison down the river, but when they got into the boat, he trained his big guns on them, disarmed them, and eventually delivered the slaves and servants to their masters. The remaining garrisons were overcome one by one. Twenty-three rebel leaders were hanged. It was a complex chain of oppression in Virginia. The Indians were plundered by No Profit Use Only
white frontiersmen,who were taxed and controlled by the Jamestown elite.And the whole colony was being exploited by England,which bought the colonists'tobacco at prices it dictated and made 100,000 pounds a year for the King.Berkeley himself, returning to England years earlier to protest the English Navigation Acts,which gave English merchants a monopoly of the colonial trade,had said: ..we cannot but resent,that forty thousand people should be impoverish'd to enrich little more than forty Merchants,who being the only buyers of our Tobacco,give us what they please for it,and after it is here,sell it how they please;and indeed have forty thousand servants in us at cheaper rates,than any other men have slaves.... From the testimony of the governor himself,the rebellion against him had the overwhelming support of the Virginia population.A member of his Council reported that the defection was "almost general"and laid it to "the Lewd dispositions of some Persons of desperate Fortunes"who had "the Vaine hopes of takeing the Countrey wholley out of his Majesty's handes into their owne."Another member of the Governor's Council, Richard Lee,noted that Bacon's Rebellion had started over Indian policy.But the "zealous inclination of the multitude"to support Bacon was due he sgid,to "hopes of levelling." "Levelling"meant equalizing the wealth.Levelling was tb behind countless actions of poor whites against the rich in all the English colonjes,in the century and a half before the Revolution. The servants who joined Bacon's Rebellion were at of a large underclass of miserably poor whites who came to the North Amercan colonies from European cities whose governments were anxious to be rid of thom.In England,the development of commerce and capitalism in the 1500s and 1600s,the enclosing of land for the production of wool,filled the cities with vagrant poor,and from the reign of Elizabeth on, laws were passed to punish them,imprison them in workhouses,or exile them.The Elizabethan definition of "rogues and vagabonds"included: ..All persons calling themselver Sohollers going about begging,all Seafaring men pretending losses of their Shippesor goods on the sea going about the Country begging, all idle persons going about in any Country either begging or using any subtile crafte or unlawful Games...comon Players of Interludes and Minstrells wandring abroade...all wandering persons an comon Labourers being persons able in bodye using loytering and refusing to worke for such reasonable wages as is taxed or commonly given.... Such persons found begging could be stripped to the waist and whipped bloody, could be sent out of the city,sent to workhouses,or transported out of the country. In the 1600s and 1700s,by forced exile,by lures,promises,and lies,by kidnapping, by their urgent need to escape the living conditions of the home country,poor people wanting to go to America became commodities of profit for merchants,traders,ship captains,and eventually their masters in America.Abbot Smith,in his study of indentured servitude,Colonists in Bondage,writes:"From the complex pattern of forces producing emigration to the American colonies one stands out clearly as most powerful in causing the movement of servants.This was the pecuniary profit to be made by shipping them." After signing the indenture,in which the immigrants agreed to pay their cost of passage by working for a master for five or seven years,they were often imprisoned until the ship sailed,to make sure they did not run away.In the year 1619,the Virginia House
white frontiersmen, who were taxed and controlled by the Jamestown elite. And the whole colony was being exploited by England, which bought the colonists' tobacco at prices it dictated and made 100,000 pounds a year for the King. Berkeley himself, returning to England years earlier to protest the English Navigation Acts, which gave English merchants a monopoly of the colonial trade, had said: ... we cannot but resent, that forty thousand people should be impoverish'd to enrich little more than forty Merchants, who being the only buyers of our Tobacco, give us what they please for it, and after it is here, sell it how they please; and indeed have forty thousand servants in us at cheaper rates, than any other men have slaves.... From the testimony of the governor himself, the rebellion against him had the overwhelming support of the Virginia population. A member of his Council reported that the defection was "almost general" and laid it to "the Lewd dispositions of some Persons of desperate Fortunes" who had "the Vaine hopes of takeing the Countrey wholley out of his Majesty's handes into their owne." Another member of the Governor's Council, Richard Lee, noted that Bacon's Rebellion had started over Indian policy. But the "zealous inclination of the multitude" to support Bacon was due, he said, to "hopes of levelling." "Levelling" meant equalizing the wealth. Levelling was to be behind countless actions of poor whites against the rich in all the English colonies, in the century and a half before the Revolution. The servants who joined Bacon's Rebellion were part of a large underclass of miserably poor whites who came to the North American colonies from European cities whose governments were anxious to be rid of them. In England, the development of commerce and capitalism in the 1500s and 1600s, the enclosing of land for the production of wool, filled the cities with vagrant poor, and from the reign of Elizabeth on, laws were passed to punish them, imprison them in workhouses, or exile them. The Elizabethan definition of "rogues and vagabonds" included: ... All persons calling themselves Schollers going about begging, all Seafaring men pretending losses of their Shippes or goods on the sea going about the Country begging, all idle persons going about in any Country either begging or using any subtile crafte or unlawful Games ... comon Players of Interludes and Minstrells wandring abroade ... all wandering persons and comon Labourers being persons able in bodye using loytering and refusing to worke for such reasonable wages as is taxed or commonly given.... Such persons found begging could be stripped to the waist and whipped bloody, could be sent out of the city, sent to workhouses, or transported out of the country. In the 1600s and 1700s, by forced exile, by lures, promises, and lies, by kidnapping, by their urgent need to escape the living conditions of the home country, poor people wanting to go to America became commodities of profit for merchants, traders, ship captains, and eventually their masters in America. Abbot Smith, in his study of indentured servitude, Colonists in Bondage, writes: "From the complex pattern of forces producing emigration to the American colonies one stands out clearly as most powerful in causing the movement of servants. This was the pecuniary profit to be made by shipping them." After signing the indenture, in which the immigrants agreed to pay their cost of passage by working for a master for five or seven years, they were often imprisoned until the ship sailed, to make sure they did not run away. In the year 1619, the Virginia House No Profit Use Only