22 Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy 19o6-1920 Jordan,Yiian and Chinese politics,19o6-I9II 23 constitutional movement a much more potent anti-Manchu force.The Y.C.Wang calls 'the wide discrepancy developed between [the Manchu] constitutional reform movement was launched by the Manchu govern- intention and practice'68 which eventually caused the movement to ment shortly after the Boxer Uprising.The tragic outcome of the Boxer threaten the very existence of the Manchu regime.This'discrepancy' Uprising forced the empress dowager at last to realize that,if the occurred with the emergence of two parties with irreconcilable aims. Manchus were to remain rulers in China,she would have to make The Manchus naturally wanted to control the reforms in order to regain certain political concessions,in form if not in reality.Thus constitutional their prestige and reassert their influence.Conversely,the so-called reforms,with a constitutional government as the ultimate goal,which constitutionalists were eager to promote constitutionalism for reasons had been anathema to the Manchus in 1898,were now granted by the which sharply contradicted the Manchu purpose. Ch'ing government. The constitutionalists fell broadly into two categories.One group The constitutional movement embodied administrative reforms as consisted of reformists under the banner of K'ang Yu-wei and Liang well as political and institutional ones.At the end of 1go6 Jordan noted Ch'i-ch'ao,who were still living in exile abroad after their abortive with pleasure that most of the decrees which had been issued dealt with coup d'etat in 1898 to bring about a constitutional government.Jordan, such matters as the reorganization of the metropolitan and provincial however,attached more significance to the second group of constitu- administration,promotion of education,suppression of opium,and tionalists-moneyed provincial gentry determined to use the constitu- control of railway,telegraph,and postal administration.63 In the middle tional reforms to acquire power and benefit nominally for the provinces, of I9o7 another series of decrees provided for administrative and judicial but in practice for themselves.69 reform at the provincial level.4 Jordan was even more delighted in late Jordan foresaw the conflict between the Manchus and the constitu- 1go7 when the Manchus decided to disband their garrisons and treat tionalists from the start.His experience of the provincial gentry during the Chinese on an equal footing with them.At the same time codification the railway negotiations led him to predict that the Manchus would raise of the laws and improvement of the fiscal system was also decreed.o5 a Frankenstein by their propagation of constitutional theories'.70 In Jordan reacted quite differently to the political aspect of the constitu- saying this Jordan meant that the balance of power between the local tional movement.In September 1go6 the throne announced the gradual government officials and the gentry would be upset;the latter would implementation of a constitutional government on the recommendation dominate the provincial assemblies which would certainly not stop at of the mission which had just returned from a study of various constitu- being merely deliberative in function.1 In the capital,with the calling of tions abroad.By August 19o7 the Commission to Investigate Modern the national assembly,the government would have to face opposition Governments(K'ao-cha cheng-chih kuan)had been reorganized into the from the 'rabid members from Canton and the South'.72 Constitutional Government Commission(Hsien-cheng p'ien-ch'a kuan), Jordan felt no gratification in having his prophecy fulfilled.The a more powerful and permanent agency charged with supervising the gentry in the provinces acted immediately after the court had made necessary reforms.In September a national assembly (Tau-cheng yiian), known in September 1go6 the intention of granting a constitutional meant to be the precursor of the parliament,and in October provincial government.In the same year the Association to Prepare for the assemblies (Tau-i chi)and various local assemblies were promised. Establishment of Constitutional Government(Yii-pei li-hsien kung hui) The legislation for a constitutional government culminated in August was founded in Shanghai by leading gentry members in Chekiang, I9o8 when the court promulgated a programme indicating that constitu- Kiangsu,and Fukien provinces,represented by T'ang Shou-ch'ien, tional reforms would be completed in nine years,that is in I917,by Chang Chien,and Cheng Hsiao-hsui respectively.Similar organizations which time the parliament proper would have replaced the national were founded in Hupei,Hunan,and Kwangtung. assembly.60 Jordan was sceptical about the feasibility of the nine years' Early in 1go8 the Association to Prepare for the Establishment of plan.He realized that China was modelling her reforms on Japan but he Constitutional Government took the lead in petitioning the court for a believed that China,with less political experience and fewer leaders, parliament.The association first contacted the Constitutional Govern- would need more than nine preparatory years.67 ment Association (Hsien-cheng kung hui)in Hunan,the Constitutional However,it was not so much the people's political immaturity as what Government Preparation Association (Hsien-cheng ch'ou-pei hui)in
24 Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy 1go6-1920 Jordan,Yiian and Chinese politics,1906-I9II 25 Hupei,the Self-government Association (Yileh-shang tau-chih hui)in provinces.Despite his illness and subsequent absence from China that Kwangtung,and the constitutionalists in Honan,Anhui,Chihli,Shan- year,Jordan was well aware that the two associations had petitioned the tung,Shansi,Szechwan,and Kweichow.Together in July they sent throne to institute a parliament in one year,instead of in I9r7 as had representatives to Peking.At the capital the provincial representatives been decreed in 1go8.78 had gained the support of a number of officials before they made the The situation steadily deteriorated.The second sittings of the pro- petition in August.At the end of the month the government was forced vincial assemblies at the end of Igro were largely marked by serious to announce the nine years'plan to prepare for the parliament.73 clashes between the assemblies and the government.Jordan heard that Among the various provincial constitutionalist organizations,Jordan the Kwangsi provincial assembly had resigned en masse after disagree- no doubt found the Self-government Association in Kwangtung most ment with the local authorities over the policy of opium suppression in objectionable.Early in 1go8 it played a leading role in organizing the the province.The Chekiang assembly left when the governor refused anti-Japanese boycott to protest against the Tatsu Maru incident.74 On to take up with the throne problems relating to the Chekiang Provincial 29 November a Chinese passenger died on his way from Hong Kong to Railway Company,the interest of which was a great concern to many Canton on board the Butterfield Swire river-streamer Fatshan.The assembly members.The assemblies in Hunan and Shensi pledged Self-government Association,supported by the local Chinese press, support for the Chekiang assembly.In Kwantung the assembly insisted insisted that the man had died after having been ill-treated by a on taking part in governing the province and demanded that the pro- Portuguese ticket collector,named Noronha.The British acting consul- vincial budget should be submitted for its approval.79 general at Canton,Harry Fox,duly conducted an enquiry,but the Troubles over the provincial assemblies had hardly subsided before verdict was death from natural causes.As a result,the Self-government the national assembly met for the first time on 3 October Igro.The new Association worked to stir up anti-British feelings among the populace. establishment initially appeared to Jordan as much less of a threat to the The promise of a second enquiry temporarily calmed the people down. Ch'ing government.Only half of the assembly's total membership However,when the same verdict was returned at the beginning of 1go9, (196 or 200)was elected by the provincial assemblies from their own the association instigated a boycott against the Fatshan.?5 According to membership;the other members were selected by the emperor mainly the acting consul-general the association derived its strength from two from the Manchu,Mongolian,and Tibetan nobilities,and top literary sources:control of the local press,and large contributions from influen- circles.Bearing this in mind,Jordan might have hoped that the national tial people in Canton as well as Cantonese residing in the British colonies assembly would exercise a moderating influence on the provincial bodies. in Southeast Asia.70 Moreover,the national assembly was to function under the direction of The assemblies in most provinces met for the first time in the middle a president selected from princes,dukes,or state officials 'of recognised of 1gog,when consular officials were instructed to provide the legation merit',and a vice-president who had to be an official above the third with detailed reports.Jordan was wary of the attitude of the assemblies rank.Among its various functions the national assembly was to intervene in Hunan,Hupei,and Kwangtung,the provinces who had fought hard in disputes among the provincial assemblies and mediate between the against the Hukwang loan.A gloomy overall picture emerged from the assemblies and provincial authorities if such a need arose.80 consular reports:local officials were either not strong enough to over- The national assembly was an immediate disappointment.On the day come gentry opposition,or were openly sympathetic with the assemblies of its inauguration the Association of Comrades to Petition for a in rejecting the central government's policies.77 Parliament presented the throne with its petition to institute a parliament Shortly afterwards Chang Chien,president of the Kiangsu provincial within one year,requesting that the national assembly should discuss it. assembly,founded the Association of Provincial Assemblies (Ko sheng Towards the end of the month the assembly decided unanimously to tau-i chii lien-ho hui)-representing sixteen provinces-to press the support the petitioners,declaring that it would resign if their request government to set up a parliament without further delay.In spring roro was rejected.a1 On 4 November the regent finally agreed to the com- the Association of Comrades to Petition for a Parliament (Kuo-hui promise whereby parliament would be convoked in 1913 instead of 1917. ch'ing-yitan t'ung-chih hui)was formed first in Peking and later in the Not surprisingly,the news upset Jordan a great deal when it reached
26 Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy I9o6-1920 Jordan,Yiian and Chinese politics,1go6-I9II 27 him in London.82 On returning to China he attended some of the improve Sino-British relations apart from being an asset to the ministry meetings of the national assembly and soon discovered the reason for its concerned.Two months after Yuan had assumed duties,the British 'independent attitude':provincial members...are carrying all before Foreign Office presented the Chinese minister in London with a them,and,so far,there has practically been no opposition on the part of the representatives of the Government'Jordan ceded that many memorandum,listing the outstanding grievances Britain held against China.The most serious complaint was the Chinese obstruction in the members attended to assembly matters with great seriousness.84 What negotiations over the Soochow-Hangchow-Ningpo railway line.In he could not tolerate however,was their condoning the provincial Jordan's opinion the conclusion of the railway loan agreement early in assemblies to defy authority and make attacks on the government. 1go8 was due largely to Yuian Shih-k'ai,who had asked the British The summit of defiance against the central government came in legation for a strongly-worded letter of protest,with which he could November when the national assembly denounced the Grand Council advise his government to settle the matter quickly.88 as'an irresponsible body'which should be subordinated to their control. Britain was also dissatisfied with China's delay in implementing the The Grand Council retaliated by resigning en masse-a wholly unpre- currency reform which she had promised in the Commercial Treaty of cedented event in its history.Although the regent did not accept the 19o2.This Yuian attempted to remedy late in 1go8.One of his trusted council's resignation and confirmed its power over the national assembly, henchmen,Tang Shao-i,was about to leave China on a mission to thank an imperial decree issued on 25 December instructed the Constitutional the United States for using her share of the Boxer indemnity as scholar- Government Commission that a responsible cabinet would replace the ships for promising Chinese students to study in America.Ytian Grand Council and all other advisory bodies.Jordan sympathized with instructed him to discuss the question of currency reform with the the grand councillors whom he thought had suffered unjustly from'the British Foreign Office on his way home.89 extravagant pretentions of these inexperienced representatives of the During the one and a half years when Yuan was in charge of foreign people'.85 affairs,Jordan was impressed by his ability to bring the provinces in In the midst of these depressing Chinese political scenes,Jordan line with the government in fulfilling foreign obligations.At the end of regarded Yuan Shih k'ai as the one redeeming element.When Jordan I9o8 the Far Eastern Department in the Foreign Office summarized the arrived in Peking in 19o6 Yuian Shih-k'ai was viceroy of Chihli province impact of Yuan's appointment on Sino-foreign relations:We are able where he devoted himself to implementing the constitutional reforms to record a sensible improvement in the conduct of foreign affairs in announced by the throne.Under Yuan's guidance several means had China.The improvement may be said to date from the appointment of been devised to popularize the idea of constitutionalism in the province, Viceroy Yuan Shih-k'ai to a seat at Wai Wu Pu and from the promotion and study centres had been set up where the gentry were trained in the of Liang [Tun-yen],a graduate of Yale,to a Vice-Presidency of the art of self government.For several years Chihli was rated by the Ministry.The Viceroy brought to the Wai Wu Pu the requisite strength Constitutional Government Commission as the best prepared province of character,prestige and influence among his contemporaries,while for the constitution.80 Liang has supported the Viceroy with a knowledge rarely equalled among Though suspicious of the constitutional movement,Jordan had peace his countrymen of Chinese and English.Complaints are now rarely heard of mind when it was in the hands of Yuan Shih-k'ai.Moreover,Jordan of unanswered dispatches,of exasperating evasion and trickery'.0 was outspoken in his admiration for Yuan's achievement in putting a Thus Yuan's sudden dismissal on 2 January Igog was a heavy blow stop to the growing and smoking of opium,promoting technical educa- to Jordan,especially as he had believed that the simultaneous deaths of tion,and improving and modernizing Tientsin,the provincial capital. the empress dowager and the emperor Kuang-hsui meant safety for In short,Chihli was the 'model on which the reform of the country Yuan.Moreover,there had been two overt signs of the regent's favour: should be based'.87 Yuian was charged with arranging the imperial funerals,and also ap- It was therefore natural that Jordan rejoiced early in September 19o7 pointed as a senior guardian of the infant emperor. at Yuian's appointment as a president of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The news of the dismissal caused a commotion in the foreign legations, The British minister anticipated that Yuan's new position would especially the British one.91 That very afternoon Jordan and his American
28 Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy I9o6-I920 Jordan,Yiian and Chinese politics,19o6-I9II 29 and German colleagues agreed that the foreign ministers should warn Prince Ch'ing,the most senior minister in the Ministry of Foreign the regent jointly that 'China's foreign relations would suffer severely Affairs,on I5 January.Jordan stressed that any violent change of the by the dismissal of a statesman who was universally considered the Chinese government was of great concern to Britain who possessed guarantee of his country's political stability'.9 This opinion was endorsed such vast interests in China.Prince Ch'ing answered that the regent's by the foreign diplomats at an informal meeting the following day,after decision concerning Yuan was final,but it did not denote a change of which the French minister was asked to draft a joint statement to be policy either in internal reforms or foreign relations.99 presented to the Chinese,pending the approval of the home govern- Significantly,Jordan never regarded the dismissal early in Igog as ments.Jordan urged the Foreign Office for immediate authorization, Yuan's final exit from the arena of Chinese politics.He was concerned which it gave not without a twinge of conscience for interfering in that there might be a wholesale removal from the government of Yuan's China's internal affairs.93 proteges,100 but Yuan's son,K'e-ting,his henchmen such as Feng On 9 January,however,Jordan reported the failure of the diplomatic Kuo-chang,Yang Shih-ch'i,Hsui Shih-ch'ang,and Chao Ping-chuin body in exerting pressure jointly on the Chinese.Since the meeting on continued to occupy important positons in the Army,the Ministry of 3 January opinions differed as to the form the representation should Posts and Communications,and other government departments.More- adopt and the manner in which it should be made.Jordan largely blamed over,there were repeated talks of Yuan's reappointment between early Japan for the situation.He was greatly displeased by the 'marked Igog and the outbreak of the rgir Revolution,when Yuan was urgently indifference'of the Japanese minister,Ijuin Hikokichi,and Japan's recalled by the Manchus to control the situation. argument that,since Yuan's personal safety had been guaranteed,there Rumours of Yuan's return to government were rife from late IgIo was no further ground for interference.34 onwards.Daily conferences concerning his reinstatement were said to Jordan shared the belief of many Chinese officials and foreigners in have been held in September roro among government officials.It was China that Japan was elated by Yuan's downfall.35 Since April 19o7, alleged that these meetings were inconclusive because of the opposition of Yuien's trusted advisers Hsu Shih-ch'ang had been viceroy of Man- the empress dowager,the consort of the late emperor Kuang-hsu.Expec- churia and T'ang Shao-i governor of Fengtien(a province in Manchuria). tation again rose high on the eve of the rgrr Revolution when Prince It was well known that for some time Yuan,Hsui and T'ang had been Ch'ing resigned from the premiership and recommended Yuan as his trying hard to curb Japan's fast expanding influence in South Manchuria. successor.However,the prince's resignation was rejected by the throne.101 Japanese activities in South Manchuria had not only offended the Chinese politics between 1go6 and Iorr convinced Jordan that only Chinese,but had somewhat soured British opinion towards the Anglo- Yuan could solve the problems created by the growing disunity of the Japanese Alliance after 1go6.British merchants were enraged by Japanese country.On the whole Jordan believed that the Manchu government commercial immorality in particular the piracy of British trade marks.96 genuinely intended to fulfill its foreign obligations.However,when the Despite the attitude of Japan and some other powers,Jordan con- government was unable to control the forces obstructing foreign interests tinued protesting to the Chinese.He agreed with the American minister, sincerity alone was meaningless.By contrast,Yuian Shih-k'ai's ability William W.Rockhill,that they should ask permission from their govern- to restrain the separatist tendency of the provinces was proven while he ments to approach the Chinese government,on the basis of the French was serving in the foreign ministry.Moreover,sympathetic as Jordan draft which had resulted from the ministers'meeting on 3 January. was with the Manchu government,he realized that only reforms could Although'originally doubtful',Sir Edward Grey gave his consent to the ensure its survival.However,he was concerned that changes must not move because of his 'confidence in Sir J.Jordan's knowledge of the be so drastic as to bring about the collapse of the status guo on which Chinese and his judgement as to its probable effect'.97 As a result of British interests depended.Here Jordan had in mind the constitutional Britain's decision,the United States government,though reluctant to movement,which he believed must be in the hands of 'a leader capable take the lead in any action,authorized Rockhill to associate with Jordan of controlling it and guiding it along the path of moderation and in protest against Yuian's removal.98 safety0 Such leadership Jordan had seen displayed by Yuan Shih-k'ai Jordan and Rockhill made their representations at an interview with when he was viceroy of Chihli
The IgII Revolution 3I recommended financial assistance to the Manchus.However,he insisted on certain terms to safeguard the expenditure and the repayment of the CHAPTER III loan,as well as several conditions to be complied with by the Chinese THE 1911 REVOLUTION before they received the money.The first and foremost of these was a reformed government in Peking with Yuan Shih-k'ai as leader.At his time Yuan was still bargaining with the Manchu government over the To Jordan the outbreak of the IoII Revolution had at least one good terms of his recall in his native province,Honan.In the end the Manchu outcome:the recall of Yuan Shih-k'ai by the panic-stricken Manchu requests for money were not granted because the consortium powers, government.Jordan's immediate reaction was that Yuian would be except Germany,were unwilling to renounce their professedly neutral perfectly able to cope with the situation.Jordan realized before long attitude. that he had underestimated the extent of the revolution,which spread On I November M.W.Townsend,acting manager of the Hongkong first along the Yangtze and then across the whole country.He could no and Shanghai Bank in London,suggested to the Foreign Office that the longer maintain his hitherto unsympathetic attitude towards the revolu- Chinese government might be reminded of its claim to half of the tionaries and he devised a policy of neutrality,by which his country Hukwang Railways loan funds(3 million)to be deposited in the Chinese sought to safeguard British life and property during the upheaval.? banks.In this way the situation could be stabilized for the general benefit The policy of neutrality was imperative to cope with the situation, of commerce without angering the revolutionaries,since such an advance but it did not tally with Jordan's concept of the ideal situation for could not be regarded as a new loan.However,the Foreign Office Britain's long term interests in China.Behind the official neutral stand quickly turned down the proposal. Jordan's sympathies were with Yuan Shih-k'ai and the Manchu govern- The following day Townsend again urged the British government to ment which had recalled Yuian. comply with a new Chinese request for five million taels to stabilize the Contrary to his initial expectations,Jordan soon realized that Yuan's money market in Shanghai.Townsend made special mention of the position was much weaker than he had originally thought.Firstly,Yuan's expected arrival in Peking of Yuian Shih-k'ai,who had already left arrival in Peking early in November did not cause the powers to retract Honan and was then commanding the government troops in the Wuhan their refusal to lend money to the Manchu government.About a week region,the area where the revolution first broke out.Shortly afterwards after Yuan's reappointment the Ministry of Posts and Communications Townsend dispatched to the Foreign Office similar requests from the and the Ministry of Finance (Hu pu)had each approached the inter- American,French,and German bank representatives in Peking.Their national consortium for loans which together amounted to twelve million main concern,besides steadying the Shanghai money market,was that taels.The representatives of the foreign banks and the American,French, Yuan should have money at his disposal in Peking for reorganization and German ministers in Peking,whose faith in the Manchu government purposes.Britain still firmly refused to lend,and on 8 November the had been boosted by Yuian's recall,were anxious to comply with the same attitude was officially adopted by the consortium at an inter-bank Chinese requests.Jordan's immediate reaction,however,was defensive: conference.Even Yuan Shih-k'ai's personal appeals for funds after his he feared vengeance from the revolutionaries,and financial loss if the arrival in Peking on I3 November did not change the situation.3 debtors were to emerge a loser in the revolution.Almost the next Jordan no doubt was somewhat relieved to learn that Yuan was given moment Jordan thought he was being over cautious,and ambiguously access to the palace treasure hoarded by the late empress dowager, advised the Foreign Office that while it was no doubt desirable to Tz'u-hsi.Yuian was said to have been given about f4oo thousand of render every assistance to the Chinese government in its present the palace hoard to defray the current expenses of the government,buy difficulties',it was'equally certain that requests for money must in the ammunition for the war ministry,and pay for the movements of troops.4 end entail some form of international control'. The question was how long this palace treasure would last.The month By 23 October Jordan's preference for the retention of the Manchu of November saw the rapid spread of revolutionary success.One province dynasty overcame his cautiousness;as a complete volte face,he now after another declared independence from the Manchu government