Acknowledgment THEsE sruDIEs were undertaken by me as a member of the Modern Chinese History Project at the University of Washington.I am therefore deeply indebted to the members of the project who in our cooperative way of work- ing have contributed their thought and material to these studies. Their criticisms and suggestions have constantly been taken into consideration.The chairman of the project,Franz Michael,was largely responsible for the early planning of my research and has worked with me through all its stages. want to state in gratitude how much of his work and thought has gone into this book.Every member of the project has been of help to me,but I want to thank especially George Taylor,Hellmut Wilhelm,Hsiao Kung-chuan, Vincent Y.C.Shih,Paul Kirchhoff,Stanley Specor,and William Schult for their criticism and advice.Special thanks are due to Gladys Greenwood for her critical reading of the manuscript and her assistance in the final organ ization of my material.Much as i owe to these friends and colleagues,I take the final responsibility for the material presented and the views expressed in this book. CHUXG-LI CHANG
Acknowledgment These .studies were undertaken by me as a member of the Modern Chinese History Project at the University of Washington. I am therefore deeply indebted to the members of the project who in our cooperative way of working have contributed their thought and material to these studies. Their criticisms and suggestions have constantly been taken into consideration. The chairman of the project, Franz Michael, was largely responsible for the early planning of my research and has worked with me through all its stages. I want to state in gratitude how much of his work and thought has gone into this book. Every member of the project has been of help to me, but I want to thank especially George Taylor, Hellmut Wilhelm, Hsiao Kung-chuan, Vincent Y. C. Shih, Paul Kirchhoff, Stanley Spector, and William Schultz for their criticism and advice. Special thanks are due to Gladys Greenwood for her critical reading of the manuscript and her assistance in the final organization of my material. Much as I owe to these friends and colleagues, I take the final responsibility for the material presented and the views expressed in this book. CiiuxG-Li Chang
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. .xi谁i PART ONE:AN INQUIRY INTO THE CONSTITUTION AND CHARACTER OF THE GENTRY OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINA of the Mai of the 33 ent Division of Strat f the Gentry. 68 in nd Compn oftbe Uppr ye?ofthe Genty 4”444.44 The Ge 44 PART TWO:A NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE GENTRY OF NINETEENTH- CENTURY CHINA of the "Re The Size of the Ge Befo nd afte An Est f the 17 Various Components of the Gentry. ings. PART THREE:THE EXAMINATION LIFE OF THE GENTRY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY CHINA 165 Preparation for Examination-A Major Activity of the Gentry. 165 Content of the Examinations and Its Relation to the Selection of Officials 174 The So-called"Spirit of Equality"in the Examination System. 182 Corruption in the Examination System 188 The Purpose of the Examination Life of the Gentry. 197 Collapse of the Ch'ing Examination System. 203 PART FOUR:A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF BIOGRAPHIES OF NINETEENTH- CENTURY CHINESE GENTRY . 4 210 REIGN PERIODS OF THE CH'ING DYNASTY. 444 231 232 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 244
CONTENTS page Introduction xiii Part One: An Inquiry into the Constitution and Character oe THE Gentry of Nineteenth-Century China 3 Description of the Main Groups of the Gentry According to their Titles and Degrees . 3 A Convenient Division of the Gentry into Two Strata 6 Entrance into and Composition of the Lower Layer of the Gentr\' 8 Entrance into and Composition of the Upper Layer of the Gentry 21 Gentry Privileges 32 The Gentry's Exploitation of Their Privileged Position 43 Gentry Functions 51 Part T^"0: A Numerical Analysis of the Gentry of NineteenthCentury China 71 Frequency and Quotas of Examinations : A Means of Government Control over the Size and Distribution of the "Regular" Gentry 73 The Size of the Gentry Before and After 1850 94 An Estimate of the Size of the Various Components of the Gentry 115 Summary of Findings 137 Part Three: The Examination Life of the Gentry of NineteenthCentury China 165 Preparation for Examination — A Major Activity of the Gentry 165 Content of the Examinations and Its Relation to the Selection of Officials 174 The So-called "Spirit of Equality" in the Examination System 182 Corruption in the Examination System 188 The Purpose of the Examination Life of the Gentry 197 Collapse of the Ch'ing Examination System 203 Part Four: A Quantitative Analysis of Biographies of NineteenthCentury Chinesf: Gentry 210 Reign Periods of tfie Ch'ing Dynasty 231 ei3liography 232 Index and Glossary 244
TABLES 2.A ual Te Magi 53 of Exa nation Quotasi in Recognition of Military Fund Contri- 8 of CivilSh ota Before and After the Taiping Period. ummary Totl al in P Pr-Taiping Pos aiping Periods 90010 by Provin ti Pre-T aiping Periods Who 10 Admissio 1 n Examina on Quota,1889 13. ge ot bui-jer of Diferent Types of Regularn the Pre-Taiping and PostTaiping Appointed to Office. 444 eng-y Quota 4, 6.Civil ota Afte 0414 eng-y 1 eng,T-nandS-mg Quotas for Merchants re and After the 19. and Military Quotas Having Biographies and Born Between 1731 and 1880,Arranged Age Gro 149 nthe Pre-Taiping Period and Their verProvin 1 21 se of N mbe Sheng-yian in the Three Districts of Ch'ang,Yuan,and Wu of cture Before and After the Taiping Period. 22. in the Post-Taiping Period and Their Distribution over 2 23. Men Purchasing Chien-beng Titles During the Tao-kuang Reign,the nt or Mo Collected,and the Proportion of Purchasers to Population from aO-KI ang 1 to 30(1821 to 1850)in Five-Year Groups. of S of Gentry Family Based on a Study of a Group of Chin-sbib. 154 /ar1 ous Iypes ot Upper Gentry.+* 156 27 and Kmg-sbib Degrees Conferred in the Metropolitan Examinations During the Ch'ing Dynasty Quota for Before and After the Taiping Period of the Five Kinds of in the Prefectural and Hsicn Schools in 160 29 1301 ung-c etecture 30. 61 Proportion of Regular to Irregular Kog-heg.,. .,162
TABLES page7 53 1. Simplified List of Gentry Groupings 2. Actual Terms in Office of District Magistrates 3. Request for Increases of Examination Quotas in Recognition of Military Fund Contri- butions in South Anhwei 86 4. Summary of Civil i'/'f/zg^/Va« Quota Before and After the Taiping Period 88 5. Age of Admission to i'/i^wg^/Vaw Status 95 6. Summary of JZ'^/zg^/Va;/ Total in Pre-Taiping and Post-Taiping Periods 100 7. Sheng-yUan Total by Province in Proportion to Population 102 8. Total of Gentry Proper in Pre-Taiping and Post-Taiping Periods Ill 9. Proportion of "Regular" Gentry Who Were Officials 118 10. Age of Admission to Chin-shih 122 11. Metropolitan Examination Quota, 1889 123 12. Age of Admission to 0«y^« 126 13. Totals of Different Types of Regular Kung-sheng in the Pre-Taiping and Post-Taiping Periods 130 14. Proportion of "Regular" Kung-sheng Appointed to Office 131 15. Civil Sheng-yiian Quota Before 1850 142 16. Civil Sheng-yiian Quota After 1850 143 17. Comparison of Sheng-yiian, Ling-sheng, Tseng-sheng, and Sui-kung Quotas for Merchants Before and After the Taiping Period 144 18. Difference Between Civil and Military Sheng-yiian Quotas 145 19. Age of Death of Men Having Biographies and Born Between 1731 and 1880, Arranged in Five-Year Age Groups 149 20. Number oi Sheng-yiian in the Pre-Taiping Period and Their Distribution over Provinces 150 21. Increase of Number of Sheng-yiian in the Three Districts of Ch'ang, Yuan, and Wu of Soochow Prefecture Before and After the Taiping Period 151 22. Number of Sheng-yiian in the Post-Taiping Period and Their Distribution over Provinces 152 23. Number of Men Purchasing Chien-sheng Titles During the Tao-kuang Reign, the Amount of Money Collected, and the Proportion of Purchasers to Population from Tao-kuangl to 30 (1821 to 1850) in Five-Year Groups 153 24. Estimate of Size of Gentry Family Based on a Study of a Group of Chin-shih 154 25. Proportions of Various Types of Upper Gentry 155 26. Origin of Military Officers, 1881 156 27. Number oi Chin-shih and Kung-shih Degrees Conferred in the Metropolitan Examinations During the Ch'ing Dynasty 157 28. Annual Quota for Sui-kung-sheng Before and After the Taiping Period 160 29. Comparison of the Five Kinds of Kung-sheng in the Prefectural and Hsien Schools in Sung-chiang Prefecture 161 30. Proportion of Regular to Irregular A"««^-j-Af«g 162
THE CHINESE GENTRY 31.Comparison of Number of Ling-heng and Trngng Before and After the Taiping Rebellion 32.Size of Gent Before and ing p 33.Gentry Participation inFu iod. 34.Ge tion in Fu B时 Period 35.Ge . ction -By Pro vince 36.N .Newcome blished"Gentry "Newco n in Functions, mic Da ta on entry Mer bers an d Their Progenitors. ata on Pper and Lower Gentry 4” conouni Data on Gentry MembersBy Province. FIGURES 1.Entrance into and Com osition of the gent 2.Percent n in Nio ereenth-Century China 3 Co Taiping Period andi. 135 138
THE CHINESE GENTRY xi page 31. Comparison of Number of Ling-sheng and Tseng-sheng Before and After the Taiping Rebellion 163 32. Size of Gentry in Various Provinces and Its Relationship to Size of Population Before and After the Taiping Period 164 33. Gentry Participation in Functions 220 34. Gentry Participation in Functions — By Period 220 35. Gentry Participation in Functions — By Province 221 36. "Newcomer" and "Established" Gentry — By Period 222 37. "Newcomer" and "Established" Gentry — By Province 222 38. "Newcomer" and "Established" Gentry — Participation in Functions, By Period 223 39. Economic Data on Gentry Members and Their Progenitors 224 40. Economic Data on Upper and Lower Gentry 226 41. Economic Data on Gentry Members — By Province 227 FIGURES page 1. Entrance into and Composition of the Gentry 9 2. Percentage of Gentry in Relation to Population in Nineteenth-Century China 114 3. Comparison of the Size of Various Subdivisions of the Sheng-yiian Before and After the Taiping Period 135 4. Proportion Between Upper and Lower Gentry and Between "Regular" and "Irregular" Gentry Before and After the Taiping Period 138