36 Rural China Administrative Divisiona 37 were merely acknowledging a fait acco The she were also found in some Central and South China provinc In some localitios in Hupeh the she appeared to have replaced. hia and the H-chia as a single 1 chia divisions as well as function and manner in which the nomenclatures fr she ts'un ployed. r,some of the compilers of local,through ing the true significance and functions of these sys- Tung (East)Hsiang 6 28 iang THE SHE AS A RURAL DIVISION ad Chu-c in K "ung-an Hsien one of them. t somewhat related to ing to the 1910 functions here. vided into fifty-eighto(written in Chinesedifer According to an early odition of the Ta-ensh-the of the pao-chia),some subdivided into and others into she vornmeat approved in 1600 (Shun-chih) sal to ntryside of the empire.It was aaid that a varying Both the Hsfang and the she were in turn divided into villages.The is (betwe en twenty and fifty were to con- (1883)described a different arrange in each division could extend Natn-hat Hsien) where the the she ar occurring in any of them during the farr or Mstan in Hsin-i Hsien.Curi of this compilation are silent on this matter.but u o Nc'nHe, uyrno ing number of he nature of this ske division as exemplifled by these dead 1756 edition of the same g .It was said that in the contained twenty-six she and four but so B.C.)the state of Ch'i presented 1,000 she toi ngea in hm ing a total of thirty se,Each she explained that"twenty-five hous larly,the Lucn citou chi(1898)describ- ated one sne. the Sui dynasty(589-617)"twenty-five at the time wh ons ot this province,stated that was primarily a unit for carrying on of 65 t'un and ske.1.347 tsm ad ade in 1896, ere on.the she a rural granaries in the Sul and Tang dy p we 561,667Again,according to the 1892 e ot the gaz of local famine relief,which was to be important in the 6 teeroChou（onan,the age of th点1 he e.Liang-ts'un-she,An-halang-she,etc ntical situation existed in Lin-chang Hsien,another locality became an officially instltuted center of agri-
38 Rural China dministrative Divisions % ch'i t'iao(Seventeen Articles of the Agricultural and Sericultural Sys- (hence the appellation /i-she)and became one of the tax gathering di- tem),which called for the organization of every fifty households in visions,as in Hsiang-fu Hsien(Honan).The compiler of the 1898 edi- the villages into one ske,and for the appointment of an elderly per- tion of the gazetteer wrote:"Li-chia:a total of 79 she.In Yung-cheng son versed in agricultural matters to s erve as its head,whose duty 4[1726]Hsin-an she was annexed to Ts'ao Hsien, ,Shantung;a tota】 it was "to teach and supervise the planting of farm crops and mul berry trees"and to guide the general conduct of the inhabitants be- each i to urge the payment of taxes." Similarly,the ske became longing to his organization. The size of the she was again increased a tax-collection division in Han-tan Hsien (Chihli).In 1855 Lu Yiin- in the Ming dynasty,and its function of rural control was further ch'ang,the magistrate,scrutinized the tax registers"from one she stressed.Emperor T'ai-tsu ordered late in 1369(Hung-wu 1)that to another,"and was thus able to put a stop to the hitherto prevailing one she be established for every hundred households and that an altar corrupt practice of ts'uan she t'iao chia (sneaking off the she,jump- be set up in each she,where sacrifices to the land and grain gods ing across the clia),that is,of "registering the title of one's land in were to be offered.He retained,with some modifications the Yuan a she in the east whereas the land t as actually in the west,or regis ter o oteo eo n elact i m aterae course,brought the ske into relationship with the tax-collection di- In 1375 it was order ed that 3 nte wh。 participated in the nof thein(shntm)thven ee nth century and Fu-nin g Hsien (Chihli)in the sacrificial ritual performed at the she-t(the rural altar)should The she was associated with the rural granaries in the Ch'ing dy- pledge by oath "to suppress the strong and support the weak, mak- nasty as it was in Sui and T'ang times.The she-ts'ang (community ing the she an instrument of imperial control through popular religion granaries)will be discussed later. Such were the historical antece edents of the she divisior of the Ch'ing dynasty,stated in the briefest of terms.It is clear that the she as con- ceived by the Ch'ing government came nearest to the Yuan system,that is,it was intended primarily as an organization for promoting or facil- itating farm production.The she of Ch'ing times assumed some other functions which its predecessors had at one time or another performed. For instance,the ske in Ho Hsien (Kwangsi)was said to have been es- sentially a rural organization for performing sacrificial rites.Accord- ing to the compiler of the 1890 edition of the Ho hsien chik: Seven or elght households,or as many as several tens of them,shared one she.Sacrificial offerings were made in the second.sixth,and eighth months of the year.On each occasion all persons belon assembled and br rht with them the necessa and When the ritual was s completed,they hada In Shansi province the she became virtually the center of village public affairs,as an 1883 memorial of Chang Chih-tung (then governor of that province)revealed: It has been ascertained that the inhabitants of Shansi province custom- arily form one she in each village.If there are two or three public More often the she,as in Ming times,was wedded to the li-chia
● Part Two RURAL CONTROL
Chapter 3 ● POLICE CONTROL: THE PAO-CHIA SYSTEM THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE PAO-CHIA The founders of the Ch'ing dynasty appreciated the truth of an old Chinese axiom that the empire could be conquered but not ruled on horseback.Instead of relying solely on military power,they under- took to maintain their rule by making use of the techniques and insti- tutions of control that had been developed by previous dynasties.As soon as the new rulers entered Peking,they adopted the entire ad- ministrative and subadministrative structure left behind by the Ming dynasty,mak cing whatever changes seemed necessary to render it safe and suitable for their own use.The pgo-chia was one of the most important subadministrative apparatuses which constituted that struc- ture Ittook a while,however,for the pc of the Ch'ing dynasty to reach its definitive form.The initial step to establish that system was taken in 1644,the first year of Shun-chih when the Prince Regent, at the suggestion of Chin Chih-chiin (a Chin rving as junior vice- president of the Board of War),ordered local officials to set up p'ai and chia for all those who submitted themselves to the new regime.2 According to an official compilation,"the method of the pao-chia"as it was instituted in 1644 was as follows nthe cityand areas of the ch and sien,every ten housholds of the 'o paoj.A 'at [sea on which the names these inhabit ong to it].If any one of into way,his recorded;if a person the ho aimed fand recordedtold,the place from which he comes is ascer- Apparently,this was a system of registration adopted to facilitate control over the inhabitants of the regions of the empire that had been newly brought under the conqueror's sway.Meanwhile,another sys-
44 Rural China Police Control 〔45 tem,roughly similar to the one just mentloned,was established: cedWev alltombpihed. This was the pao-chia system of the Ch'ing dynasty,which was to rboads are to repor ontrol of the empire at a subadministrative -cha,who will in turn ort them of the function was ae。 in the neighborh 00 mit them to the Board of war. for it who dwelt in households,temples,and hostels-kept track of all the move This system differed fr ments of Individua】 s and ho lace the bao-chia Board of Revenue,whereas the tsi-chia s of War.Secondly,there was a structural difference: tered and made the or sheriff:to watch,detect,andr ort any Pao-chia-p'ai system Tsung-chia system might be found in the neighborhoods.The regiaters facilitated the at-10 execution of these duties by providing records concerning the inhabl- tants an It was not designed,however,to furnish 1,000 households-pao (with pao-c housebolds-ts-c ly to pile any vite tas tential capacity and were the m the po- to ous creation of two instruments The second and perhaps central function of the poo and serving id tical pur. and poor oordination that th order.Each inhabitant was required to report perial structure itself was in its formative stage of criminal or pre trs7adhramlycomsoiatedit话conguestaadcompletodtsnSt for reporting them tutional organization,the /srg-chia as a posteampaign instrument of anyone ropped out of leaving thepo hig under the Board 0 the surveillance. ed. of the nhabitants were available,the im- in 1708 makes clear the form and functions of the the se s on any person who failed to reg- aged by the government at that time: Since landowners had a strong registration,the law provided heavier pumishment for such delt nilies of the gentry as well as those of the com rded:in case a d,subject to the inspection of the pao- ich they come ascertai ned the land tax shall g.any ing of them has liable by eighty. lice matters,it was placed without exception under the t with foxiplacard-hea and every of the(Cme Division)of the. and shrines.At the end of each month,the submits a